Ferdinand Tennis (1855-1936) - German sociologist, one of the founders of formal sociology. Born in the agrarian community of Eisenstadt. He witnessed the economic and political upheavals that took place in contemporary Germany. His main works are "Community and Society" (1887), "Crime as a Social Phenomenon" (1909), "Morals" (1909), "Criticism of Public Opinion" (1922), "Property" (1926), "Progress and Social development” (1926), “Introduction to sociology” (1931).

F. Tennis develops the problems of formal sociology, but proceeds from the premise that the "national spirit" (general creativity) has a genetic priority over the individual: the first link in public life is a community, not an individual. He pays the main attention to the social group as a whole (Gestalt), whose strength is determined by the interdependence of parts (individual members). The stronger the gestalt, the more the position and behavior of its individual members depends on intra-group relations. Thus, in primitive societies, where kinship ties are very strong, a break with the group leads to death. F. Tennis emphasizes that the cardinal point of his theory is the subjective justification of interactions in society: the human spirit as will and mind shapes historical processes. Formed in the course of interpersonal interactions "social entities", which are directly experienced, are of a socio-psychological nature. In this plan social Psychology relates to sociology.

The concept of sociology by F. Tennis relies on differently oriented methodologies for solving specific problems, and the model he proposed predetermined discussions about the structure of sociology that have not lost their relevance even today (Figure 1).

Figure 1 - The structure of sociology according to F. Tennis

General sociology, according to F. Tennis, should consider all forms of human existence (including mutual negations), including those common with the forms of social life of animals. However, he does not consider it in detail.

Special sociology has only its inherent subject - the social, which is formed through the interaction of people. In turn, it includes:

1) Pure(theoretical) sociology, which develops a formalized system of non-historical - "pure" categories, with the help of which the line of development of "community" and "society" is controlled.

2) Applied sociology, close in concept to the philosophy of history, in which the processes of historical change and social development are interpreted in a deductive way.

3) Empirical sociology (sociology), which is the observation and study of social life in a particular country (region of the country) using statistical methods.

This model of sociology is eclectic and semi-positivist in nature, which complicates its understanding, but does not detract from innovative tendencies. In particular, F. Tennis is one of the first who tried to combine theoretical and applied sociology, as well as to give it an empirical character, delimiting sociology from philosophy. He was one of the pioneers of empirical research into the social and economic conditions of life of the Hamburg port workers, the state of crime, and tendencies in the field of suicide. His empirical sociology acts as a descriptive science oriented towards the positivist ideal of objectivity and freedom from value influences, as well as independence from practical social activities- politicians. F. Tennis believes that a scientist cannot proceed from the desired scientific result, he only wants to know (to be impartial). The practitioner, on the other hand, begins with a desire for something concrete. At the same time, while dividing science and social practice, he sees the task of the former in making science useful for practical - political - activity.

According to F. Tennis, society, social reality, are the product of human will. The subject of sociology, in his opinion, is the human will as the main creative factor in the structure of society. At the same time, F. Tennis proceeds from the fact that human nature is, in principle, knowable.

Social, according to F. Tennis, occurs when coexisting people are in a state of "mutual affirmation". As the highest instance of human social existence, he defines consciousness. The latter, in turn, is predetermined by the will: on the basis of their will, people enter into relations with each other. The reduction of social relations to a volitional principle is the essence of Tennis's psychologization of sociology.

Many wills, in agreement with each other, form the "social will". When it is realized, a force arises that breaks the road in spite of other wills that oppose it. Social wills arise in people's interactions as social entities that can be "wished" or "thought" as subjects of collective desire and action - a directly experienced interaction of personalities.

The type of will determines the type of social connection in F. Tennis. He distinguishes two types of will: natural instinctive will and rational selective will.

natural will there is a way of thinking and perception inherited (past) from the ancestors: it manifests itself “in the views, morals and conscience” of a person. The natural will is the "psychological equivalent of the body" and appears in the forms of instinctive drives, habits and memory. It is based on unconscious motives with which the rational will coexists. Therefore, this type of will appears as a will containing thinking. In connection with the natural will, affective, emotional, semi-instinctive urges and inclinations that are realized in activity are considered.

rational will there is a rationally goal-oriented will that purposefully chooses the means and is consistent with a clear awareness. This selectivity appears in the forms of "intentionality" (free behavior in general), "arbitrariness" (individual actions) and "concept" (connecting thinking itself). This type of will appears as thinking containing will. Therefore, in connection with the rational will, the thought system of goals, intentions, means contained in human heads and called "aspiration" is considered.

All types and forms of will are manifested in the activities and behavior of people: the will that guides them forms mutually affirming social relations. From this, F. Tennis derives the main typology of the latter: community "geminshaft" And Gesellschaft Society. As a whole, they are forms that do not depend on the specific subjects that make up the transient matter (content) of the form. As such, community and society are the subject of pure sociology.

The basis of the historical and social concept of F. Tennis is the installation that in the course of the development of culture two epochs confront each other: the era of society comes to replace the era of community. Thus, his conception reduces sociology to a "sociology of culture".

For F. Tennis, pure sociology is an abstract, theoretical discipline, which, in understanding the social world, weakens historicism (the German historical school) in favor of rational thinking- abstract-deductive methods. He builds an extensive system of "pure" - non-historical (ideal construction) sociological concepts, with the help of which he constructs a scheme of social evolution. He gave the concepts of "community" and "society" a basic character (status) and with their help typologised the traditional, intimate, "face to face" group organization of the village and the "emancipated", impersonal group organization of the city.

The starting point for considering the transition from community to society in F. Tennis is the generalization of everyday phenomena, which, losing their historical content, are subject to formalization.

Subject natural instinctive (essential) will is the "self" - an organic unity determined by itself. Community relations presuppose a "higher self", which predetermines the main economic and legal categories: possessions, land, territory, family law. As a result, a commonality is formed.

commonality- this is a community (unity), which is generated by natural will. It is historically primary education and exists in the family, neighborhood, friendship and people. The community is characterized by customs, religion, consent, which underlie emotional-organic relations. Community ties are based on a sense of closeness and are distinguished by the stability of contacts, the duration and the support of traditions. They contribute to the preservation of their own identity.

The community is also able to include other, smaller organic unities or, by relating to unities equal to itself, to constitute a whole (Gestalt). For example, the family as a whole is constituted by the emotional-organic relations of kinship of its parts: mother and children, brothers and sisters, father. Each person acts as an independent organic unit. Only in the whole - the family - is he a mother or a sister, and this whole is constituted by the relations of its members.

Social relations in a community are, as it were, inherited: they are entered into at the moment of birth, they are not chosen, but received from ancestors. This shows their conservatism - traditionalism.

The subject of rational electoral will is an "artificial" face - an external mechanical unity, determined by an external (random) way. This is an ideal construction of thinking that seeks unity in a variety of manifestations. It can refer to an "individual person" - a separate person, independent of other persons, entering into rational-selective relations with them, as well as to a collective ("fictitious person") - a set of persons that make up the whole. The result is a society.

Society- this is an artificial (secondary) formation generated by the rational will. It is characterized by division, which determines the situation of exchange and creates a fictitious unity. In society, people interact for profit. At the same time, such means as agreement, politics, public opinion which underlie rational-selective relations. Contractual-exchange relations are based on rational goals and are distinguished by expediency, calculation, limited participation, agreement and relative constancy.

Social relations in society are created each time, as it were, anew - a rationalistic society of a social contract. In this, anti-traditionalism is manifested: they enter society "as if they were entering a foreign land." The very same vision of the new society in F. Tennis was extremely abstract. He only draws a line of social evolution as a process of rationalizing social relations: from the culture of the people (community) to the civilization of statehood (society), which, in the limit, should grow into a “world state”, which is the business of the trading class. At the same time, spiritual life and the way of thinking will be transformed, when religion, based on the depths of people's life, will give way to science, based on reason and rationality. It was this path of "natural development" as a change in the culture of civilizations that caused alarmist moods and criticism of the existing status quo.

F. Tennis transfers the developed system of "pure" concepts into applied and empirical sociology as general guidelines.

Thus, according to the main concept of F. Tennis, society includes various relationships and bringing people together and is a product of the human will. Individual expressions of will are combined into a collective will and thus into a social structure. F. Tennis distinguishes two types of "will": a) natural - the basis of the "gemeinschaft" (community) and b) rational - the basis of the "gesellschaft" (society). The first characterizes, first of all, traditional society, and the second - industrial. Such societies differ from each other on the basis of their dominant norms. The Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft typology has been used quite often in modern sociology, especially when comparing rural and urban communities.

Georg Simmel ( 1858-1918) - the first representative of the "formal" school of sociology . The name of this school was given precisely according to the works of this German researcher, who proposed to study the “pure form”, fixing in social phenomena the most stable, universal traits, and not empirically diverse, transient. Simmel's use of the concept of "pure form" allows the sociologist to exclude from the research process human actions irrational factors: feelings, emotions and desires.

If these psychological acts are excluded from the subject area of sociology, it becomes possible to study exclusively the sphere of values - the area of the ideal (or ideosocial). Moreover, the sociologist should study not the content of the ideal, but isolated values. This allows you to get "building material" for creating the geometry of the social world.

Simmel's formal geometric method made it possible to single out society in general, institutions in general, and to construct a system in which sociological variables are freed from moralizing value judgments.

Based on this, it can be pointed out that the pure form is the relationship between individuals, considered separately from the psychological aspects.

According to Simmel, society is a set of forms and systems of interaction. It is based on the drives, interests and goals of individuals, which constitute the content of social life or "matter of socialization". The matter of socialization itself is not social, but all the actions of an individual become social, because they force the individual to interact.

Socialization- these are forms realized in an infinite number of ways in which individuals, on the basis of various motives and interests, create a special unity within which these motives and interests are embodied. Simmel called these forms " forms of socialization". The main thing for sociology, from the point of view of Simmel, is the study of the forms of sociation.

Simmel's social theory included three sections: formal sociology; social theory of knowledge; concept historical development.

Studying the forms of socialization, Simmel identified several main types:

social processes- permanent, independent of the specific circumstances of their implementation, relations

social types- standard relationships of individuals representing different groups and strata of society

development models- a system of interaction in all spheres of public life, including the most significant social institutions.

According to Simmel's theory, forms of socialization arise on the basis of socialization matter, but then they can gradually lose touch with it. Based on this, Simmel distinguished forms of socialization as they moved away from the "stream of life." Simmel identified 3 types of forms of socialization:

spontaneous forms- interactions caused by momentary needs

economic and state-legal forms- providing indirect realization of people's interests

game forms- pure forms of socialization, divorced from real needs

Being a prominent representative of formal sociology, G. Simmel in a number of works seeks to concretize his doctrine of society with the help of classifications of social forms.

Simmel refers to social processes subordination, domination, reconciliation, competition, etc. The second category of social forms covers social types, meaning the systematization of some essential characteristic qualities of a person that do not depend on interactions between people (aristocrat, poor man, cynic, coquette, merchant, woman, alien, bourgeois, etc.). The third group of social forms includes models of development and characterizes social differentiation, the relationship between the group and the individual. Simmel writes that the strengthening of individuality leads to the degradation of the group (the smaller the group, the less individual its members are and, conversely, with the increase in the group, its members become more dissimilar to each other).

social type is a set of essential qualities of a person that become characteristic for him due to his inclusion in a certain kind of relationship.

His research is of particular importance. the role of money in culture set out in "Philosophy of Money"» (1900). The use of money as a means of payment, exchange and settlement turns personal relationships into indirect non-personal and private relationships. It increases personal freedom, but causes a general leveling due to the possibility of a quantitative comparison of all conceivable things. Money for Simmel is also the most perfect representative of the modern form scientific knowledge reducing quality to purely quantitative aspects.

Ferdinand Tönnies(1855 - 1936) - German sociologist, one of the founders of professional sociology in Germany, supporter of "understanding sociology", founder of "formal sociology".

Tennis has set itself the goal of linking together rationalistic and historical outlook, combine the advantages of rational scientific method with a historical view of the social world.

Tennis says that sociology as a special science has its own specific items. These are "things" that take place only in social life.“They,” the sociologist writes, “are products of human thinking and exist only for human thinking, but first of all, for the thinking of the socially connected people themselves ...”. This "connectedness" of people (ie various forms of social connections between them) is studied by sociology. Their types and forms form the basis of the sociological concept of Tennis. He compares (and, to a certain extent, opposes) two types of connections and the corresponding types of society.

The opposition of the two types of society was consistently carried out by Tennis in a small work "Community and Society", written in 1881 and subtitled "Theorem of the Philosophy of Culture". This work subsequently brought Tennis worldwide fame.

Its main idea was to contrast the concepts community (gemeinschaftliche) relations and connections, on the one hand, and public (gesellschaftliche) on the other. Relationships of the first kind are rooted in emotions, affection, mental inclination and retain their own identity both consciously due to following tradition and unconsciously due to emotional ties and thanks to the unifying influence of a common language. . “I distinguish,” Tennis later wrote, “the following types of social relations: 1) tribal relations. Naturally, these are primarily considered to be generic or blood and family relations; 2) relationship neighborhood, characterized by cohabitation, characteristic of marriage and in the narrow sense of the word family life, however, in the concept having a broader meaning; 3) relationship friendship, based on the consciousness of spiritual closeness or kinship, since such consciousness is postulated or taken as the basis of some kind of common life; they acquire a special social significance when they are perceived as a common religious affiliation, as a "community".

Relations of the second kind have a different character, or public relations . Their principle and basis is a rational exchange, a change of things in possession. These relations, therefore, have a material nature and are characterized by the very nature of the exchange by the oppositely directed aspirations of the participants. These relations are partly based on relations of the above-described - communal - type, but they can also exist between separated and alien individuals, even between enemies, thanks to the conscious decision of the individuals participating in them. Various kinds of groups, collectives, or even communities and states, considered as formal “persons”, can act as individuals in such relations. “The essence of all these relationships and connections lies in the consciousness of the usefulness or value that one person has, can have or will have for another and which this other discovers, perceives and realizes. Relations of this kind have, therefore, a rational structure.

These two kinds of relationships and connections - communal and social - characterize not only the relationship of people to each other, but also the relationship of a person to society. In a community, the social whole logically precedes the parts; in society, on the contrary, the social whole is made up of a combination of parts. The difference between the community and society is the difference between the organic and mechanical connection of the parts that make up the social whole.

The foundation of these two types of organization of social life are two types of will, designated by Tennis as Wesenwille and Kurwille (originally Wilkuer). Wesenwille is the will of the entity, i.e. in a sense, the will of the whole, which determines any, the most insignificant aspect of social life. Kurwille means a different type of action of the integrating factor, the weakening of the social will, its division into many private sovereign wills, mechanically combined into a whole of social life. The paramount importance attached by Tennis to the concept of will gave reason to most researchers to attribute his ideas to the psychological direction in sociology. This is hardly fair. Will to a very small extent is understood by Tennis as a purely psychological factor. Although Tennis constantly writes about the fact that there is no human behavior without will, the will in his concept is a very abstract concept, devoid of direct psychological meaning. “Any spiritual activity,” Tennis wrote, “being human, is marked by the participation of thinking, therefore I distinguish between will, since it contains thinking, and thinking, since it contains will.” Elsewhere, Tennis expresses himself even more clearly: “The will in its human quality is determined by the power of human thinking,” and the Latin epigraph from Spinoza, prefaced by Tennis to one of the sections of his main work - (“Will and reason are one and the same” (lat.) , allows us to clarify the origin, and hence the rationalistic meaning of his ideas about the human will.

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Sociology is the science of the patterns of formation and development of social systems, communities, groups, and individuals. The subject of sociology is the social specificity of the development of society.

According to Anthony Giddens, sociology is "the study of human social life, the study of groups and societies."

According to V. A. Yadov, sociology is the science of the functioning of society, of the relationship of people.

The main goal of sociology is "the analysis of the structure of social relations in the form in which they develop in the course of social interaction."

Also, the purpose of the science of sociology is to study society as an organized form of people's existence, the relationship between the individual and society as a whole.

The tasks of sociology are divided into primary and secondary. The tasks of social structure and growth belong to the first class. To the second - the tasks of the social process, laws and causes. Primary tasks fall in turn into two groups. One group consists of description tasks. Its content is the elements and the modern organization of society. The second group consists of the problems of history, namely the problems of the origin of society and its evolution up to our time.

In the first, or descriptive, group of primary sociological problems, we see all problems about the social population. They include tasks:

· aggregation;

associations and cooperation, or mutual assistance;

the social character of the population;

The classes into which the population is differentiated.

Next come the tasks of social consciousness, or social reason, including here common memories and ideas, common aspirations and desires. The sociologist will not, in investigating them, enter into a detailed analysis of archeology, mythology, and comparative religion, or into the details of law and institutions, all in which social reason finds its expression. But he must understand the structure, origin and activity of the social mind itself.

Sociology studies social consciousness in its inconsistency. Sociologists, studying social consciousness, focus their attention on:

on the general laws and trends in the development of public consciousness;

· on the characteristics of the consciousness and behavior of social, socio-demographic and socio-professional groups (workers, peasants, entrepreneurs, students, women, etc.);

· on the forms of social consciousness: political, economic, environmental, legal, etc.;

on identifying the features of public consciousness and its components at the local level (in the city, district, individual organization);

· on such specific types of consciousness as national and religious;

· on contradictory and ambivalent tendencies in the development of public consciousness.

Thus, the relevance of such a direction in science as sociology determined the choice of the topic of this work, related to one of the well-known sociological movements of F. Tennis.

The relevance of this work is determined by the problems of the sociological doctrine of F. Tennis, its versatility and diversity, as well as a number of philosophical, psychological and sociological issues.

The theoretical significance of the study of F. Tennis and his contribution to the development of sociological knowledge lies in the disclosure of aspects of the influence of the activity and views of this scientist on the formation of sociological science, on its development and improvement.

The object of this study is the sociological concept of F. Tennis.

The subject of the study is the analysis of the sociological concept of F. Tennis and the disclosure of the problematic issues of this theory.

The purpose of the study is to form an idea of the sociological concept of F. Tennis and its role in the development of sociological knowledge.

1. Acquaintance with the provisions of the sociological concept of F. Tennis.

2. The study of aspects of the influence of the sociological concept under consideration on the formation and development of sociological knowledge.

3. Consideration of the relevance of the studied sociological concept at the present stage of development of sociological science.

4. Formation of a holistic picture of research issues and relevant conclusions.

The sources of information for writing the work were the basic educational literature, fundamental theoretical works of the greatest thinkers in this field, the results of practical research by prominent domestic and foreign authors, articles and reviews in specialized and periodicals devoted to the subject of sociological concepts, reference literature, other relevant sources of information, which is described in the section of used sources of information.

Chapter 1. The main provisions of the sociological concept of F. Tennis

In this chapter, we will consider the theoretical and practical aspects of the sociological concept of Ferdinand Tennis, the reasons for its emergence, and its essence. Also in the first chapter of our work, we will consider the issues of community and society that Ferdinand Tennis touched upon in his writings.

So, Ferdinand Tennis is a German sociologist, one of the founders of professional sociology in Germany, the founder of "understanding sociology", a supporter of "formal sociology".

Tennis was one of the founders of the formal school, he tried to be one of the first to create a single and logically coherent system of concepts, to present this science as a multi-level one.

Tennis distinguished between pure, applied and empirical sociology. The first analyzes society in a state of statics, the second - dynamics, the third explores the facts of life modern society based on statistical data. He called empirical sociology sociography.

He singled out two types of society, two types of social relations - communal and public, and three types of forms of social life:

social relations;

groups;

corporations or associations.

According to the main concept of Tennis, society includes various relationships and associations of people and is thus a product of human will. Individual expressions of will are combined into a collective will and thus into a social structure.

Tennis distinguishes between two types of "will":

natural - the basis of the "gemeinshaft" (community);

rational - the basis of the "gesellschaft" (society).

The first characterizes, first of all, a traditional society, and the second - an industrial one. Such societies differ from each other on the basis of their dominant norms.

"Community" characterizes the traditional society, which is based on close family relationships, on the norms of love, mutual understanding and protection. Social ties are based on kinship, common locus and language.

Such an organization of common life can be called a "natural" society based on "natural will". "Society" is represented in modern industrial society, which is based on economic, impersonal and artificial relationships, on the norms of economic value, labor and consumption, and on bonds that refer to social class and economic agreements.

It can be called a business organization in which "rational will" prevails. The Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft typology has been used quite often in modern sociology, especially when comparing rural and urban communities.

The system of basic concepts of sociology of F. Tennis should include the following:

knowledge of another person, acquaintance - alienation;

sympathy - antipathy;

trust - distrust;

social connection;

social essence, or social form;

Essential will and electoral will;

community and society;

natural - artificial, or social, or collective personality;

natural - social relation, social totality, corporation.

The methodological explanation made by Tennis regarding the concepts of "essential will" and "elective will" is as follows. They should be understood as "normal concepts", that is, as "ideal types designed to serve as a scale for the knowledge and description of realities", necessarily applicable also to the concepts of "community" and "society".

What is meant? On the one hand, communal relations show tendencies towards socialization, for example, when social relations in the narrow sense of the word invade family relations, and the former are built on the basis of the latter, as happens, in particular, when concluding marriage contracts. On the other hand, in public relations there are tendencies to unite in a community, for example, nepotism, nepotism, community, friendly and friendly ties in the formation of teams, groups, cliques in politics, economics, culture and other areas.

Not surprisingly, the concepts of "community" and "society" were at the center of sociological reflections of other classics of German sociology of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, G. Simmel and M. Weber.

In view of the foregoing, community, or community relations, should be understood primarily as close cohesion, solidarity, solidarity into unity. According to Tennis, the presence of community can be stated "where people through their will are organically connected with each other and positively relate to each other." Tennis refers to kinship, neighborhood and friendship as primary forms of community.

Following Schopenhauer, he attaches particular importance to sympathy, considering it unique strength capable of bringing people together. Its peculiarity is that it is natural and social at the same time. But the fact that it is "natural" does not yet mean that the unification of people occurs without their good will to unite in a community, and even more so to enter society.

Chapter 2. Influence of the sociological concept of Tennis on the development of sociological science

In this chapter, we turn to concretizing the concepts of Tennis theory and their applicability in modern sociological science. We will also consider the issues of the formation of a community and society in tennis, aspects of their existence at the present stage of development of sociological knowledge. According to Tennis, community is the bearer of qualities that are highly valued both by everyday consciousness and by many moral systems: these include, first of all, human closeness, trust, depth of feelings, readiness to help, etc. Community life together, an example of which is the community of mother and child, cannot be consciously organized, deliberately “arranged”.

Community is always a naturally formed unity. All forms of human socialization grow out of it. General social relations are alien to "calculation"; those who are included in them feel safe, protected, but at the same time bound by moral obligations to individual members of the community and the community as a whole. Conflicts and temporary disagreements, as a rule, are not able to destroy the emotional-volitional unity and solidarity between members of the community.

Community can be built on the following grounds:

geographical proximity (village, commune, parish, nation);

on psychological closeness;

on consanguinity (family);

on spiritual closeness (circle of friends and like-minded people).

Let us consider the aspects of the formation of the system of concepts of the sociological concept of F. Tennis. Concepts, their meaning and significance are given in tabular form (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 The system of concepts of the sociological concept of Tennis

concept	Antipode in theory	Essence in the concept of F. Tennis	intrinsic motivation
familiarity	foreignness	Revealing the differences between perception with closeness of people and alienation, arguing for evidence of a superficial way of thinking or way of expressing	Joyful or hostile experiences, desire to reject or support, indifference or complacency
Sympathy	Antipathy	Instinctive perceptions are often associated with higher, noble, human-specific feelings. The more sympathy and antipathy are instinctive, the more they depend on external phenomena.	The experience of meeting strangers, the desire to express oneself, sensuality and rejection of the unfamiliar
Confidence	Mistrust	Trust is largely embodied by communication itself. As a rule, trust quickly and easily arises from sympathy. Personal trust is always essentially conditioned by the personality of the trusting person.	Joy, complacency, understanding. Annoyance, anger, bitterness, rejection

How are the aspects of community and society applicable to modern sociological knowledge? The idea of society and community, as mentioned earlier, is to oppose the concepts of community relations and connections, on the one hand, and public, on the other.

Relationships of the first kind are rooted in emotions, affections, psychic inclinations and retain their own individuality both consciously due to following tradition and unconsciously due to emotional ties and thanks to the unifying influence of a common language.

“I distinguish,” Tennis wrote, “the following types of social relations:

tribal relations. Naturally, in the first place, gentile or consanguineous relations are considered as such;

Neighborhood relations, characterized by cohabitation, characteristic of marriage and, in the narrow sense of the word, family life, but in the concept of having a broader meaning;

· relations of friendship based on the consciousness of spiritual closeness or kinship, since such consciousness is postulated or taken as the basis of any kind of life together; they acquire a special social significance when they are recognized as a common religious affiliation, as a "community."

Relations of the second kind, or social relations, have a different character. Their principle and basis is rational exchange, the change of things in possession.

These relations, therefore, have a material nature and are characterized by the very nature of the exchange by the oppositely directed aspirations of the participants. These relations are partly based on the relations of the previously described - communal - type, but they can also exist between separated and alien individuals.

Various kinds of groups, collectives, and even communities and states, considered as formal "persons", can act as individuals in such relations. "The essence of all these relations and connections lies in the consciousness of the usefulness or value that one person has, can have or will have for another and which this other discovers, perceives and realizes. Relations of this kind have, therefore, a rational structure."

We present in tabular form the considered aspects of the sociological theory of F. Tennis (Table 2.2)

Table 2.2 The structure of the concepts "community" and "society" in the sociological concept of F. Tennis

concept

Content

Principle and basis in the concept

commonality

They are based on geographical proximity, on psychological proximity, on consanguinity (family), on spiritual proximity (circle of friends and like-minded people)

Emotionality, affection, mental inclinations, one's own individuality, preserved both consciously by following tradition and unconsciously by virtue of emotional ties and thanks to the unifying influence of a common language

Society

1. Family relations

2. Neighborhood relationship characterized by cohabitation

3. Relationships of friendship based on the consciousness of spiritual closeness or kinship, insofar as such consciousness is postulated or taken as the basis of some kind of common life

Rational exchange, change of things in possession. This kind of relationship has a material nature and is characterized by the very nature of the exchange by the oppositely directed aspirations of the participants.

The initial idealization on which Tennis based his sociology included two abstract concepts. Tennis's sociological thinking is based on the principle of conceptual antinomy: just as any concrete manifestation of social will is both a phenomenon of will and a phenomenon of reason, so any social formation contains both the features of both a community and a society.

The community and society thus became the main criterion for the classification of social forms. In general, Tennis strove to develop a detailed and ordered system of such criteria.

Thus, social entities or forms of social life were divided into three types:

social relations;

groups;

corporations or associations.

Social relations exist when they are not only felt or recognized as such by the individuals participating in them, but their necessity is also realized, and also to the extent that mutual rights and obligations of participants occur from them. In other words, social relations are relations that have an objective character.

The set of relationships between more than two participants is a "social circle". The social circle is the stage of transition from relation to group. A group is formed when the association of individuals is consciously considered by them as necessary to achieve some goal.

All these detailed and branched typological constructions would be absolutely non-historical and abstract, if it were not for the constant division into communal and social manifestations of literally each of the distinguished forms.

Tennis called the analysis of social phenomena from the point of view of their development applied sociology. The principle of conceptual antinomy becomes the method of applied sociology. The dialectical interaction of will and mind, which lies at the foundation of social relationships, develops, according to Tennis, in the direction of the predominance of the mind, i.e. social development is a process of increasing rationality. This determines the direction of social development: from the community to society.

Conclusion

In the sociology of Tennis, a step was taken from the socio-philosophical speculations characteristic of the previous period to the development of an objective, scientific sociology, alien to preconceived value positions, political attitudes, alien to the philosophy of history of the moralizing tendency. Of course, the "scientific" nature of Tennis's sociology was guided by a quite definite, namely, positivist, image of science. Tennis attributed to the merits of his sociological concept, firstly, objectivity, secondly, its naturalistic tendency, and thirdly, its independence from value premises and practical social activity.

Tennis was one of the first in Western sociology to pose the problem of social structure, which since that time has been regarded as specifically sociological, guaranteeing a special angle of view, a special way of posing the problem. The idea of developing a formal sociology that analyzes its subject regardless of its substantive characteristics was picked up by G. Simmel.

Nevertheless, the main thing that Tennis left to the modern sociology of the West was the idea of distinguishing two types of social connections and relations, embodied in the concepts of "community" and "society". This idea was picked up by Durkheim, who singled out a society with "organic" and "mechanical" solidarity. In a revised form, this typology has been used and continues to be used today by many sociologists, philosophers and historians to explain the main conflict of the historical development of modernity.

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