Historically, the earliest form of worldview is. The concept of worldview and its historical forms Worldview and its historical types
Historically, the first form of worldview was mythology. Mythology (from the Greek mythos - legend, legend and logos - word, concept, teaching) is a type of consciousness, a way of understanding the world, characteristic of the early stages of the development of society. Myth is the first attempt of ancient people to explain the world, to raise the most fundamental, key questions in relation to man - the world and to find answers to them. In the spiritual life of primitive people, mythology acted as a universal, integral form of their consciousness, as a holistic worldview that contained the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, political views, various arts and philosophies. The myth, as the earliest form of the spiritual culture of mankind, expressed the worldview, worldview and worldview of the people of the era in which it was created, expressed its spirit.
Of course, for the first forms of explaining the world, there was not enough experimental material for generalization, nor strict logic, which is why they were rather naive. In myth, the world is rather not analyzed, but experienced. In it, the understanding of the world is akin to a worldview, based on sensory visual representations. When trying to make sense of the world ancient man naturally exceeded the capabilities of the just emerging intellect, while having, moreover, very meager experience, he was forced to speculate in his thinking, to speculate about the incomprehensible and unknown, sometimes building fantastic images.
A characteristic feature of the mythological type of worldview was anthropomorphism- transfer to the world of one's own, human qualities. The world in its diverse manifestations was perceived as similar to a human being, turned out to be humanized. Natural things and phenomena, by analogy with man, were considered just as alive, intelligent, capable of communication and feelings. As a result, a person did not feel his discord with nature, rather he felt himself an inseparable whole with it. In his view of the world, the subjective and the objective, the spiritual and the material, the natural and the supernatural organically merged into one, everything turned out to be permeated with some kind of living, reasonable, but mystical fabric, into which man himself was woven. This feature of the mythological perception of the world as an indivisible whole is called syncretism. One could see in it a vague guess about the interconnectedness of the whole world, about its close unity and kinship of the origins of existence.
The originality of the myth was also manifested in the fact that the thought was expressed in specific emotional, artistic, sometimes poetic images. With the help of an artistic and figurative description, attempts were made to answer the question of the emergence and structure of the surrounding world, the origin of the most important forces and phenomena of nature for a person, world harmony, the origin of people, the mystery of the birth and death of a person, and various tests that arise on his life path. A special place was occupied by myths about the cultural achievements of people - making fire, the invention of crafts, agriculture, the origin of customs, rituals, etc.
Despite the limitations of mythological thinking, nevertheless, the development of the worldview of ancient people already then began its process of moving from myth to logos, from fiction and various speculations of thinking to comprehending its actual relationships and patterns. This was due to the fact that people in their life and practice could not fail to notice a certain logic in the processes taking place around them, not to grasp the simplest relationships. Along with this, their generalizing and analytical abilities grew. However, gradually the idea of the most important forces of the world and the most general, simplest patterns led to their abstraction into something independent, with the appearance of the force that "rules" the specific processes of the world. Thus, the gods in mythology were the simplest expression of the original abstractions of the driving forces of nature and society. The initial generalizations could not yet be so strong as to simultaneously embrace the universal content of the world and at the same time be kept on the basis of real processes. Therefore, the universal became the force that opposes the real world, is taken out of it, decides the fate of the world from outside its limits. Indicative here would be the idea of the Greek "Olympus" as a special heavenly kingdom, where the fate of the whole world was decided.
Such ideas directed the further development of the worldview of ancient people in the direction of religiosity. Religion(from lat. religion- religion, holiness, piety, reverence, conscientiousness, worship, etc.) - a special form of understanding the world, due to belief in the supernatural, which includes a set of moral norms and types of behavior, rituals, religious actions and the unification of people in organizations (church, religious community).
The religious worldview clearly distinguishes between the supernatural and natural worlds, between the miraculous and the earthly. The center of the supernatural world is the god (gods), which determines all its structures and creates the real world. The religious picture of the world proceeds from the fact that the plane of being that we see is not the only one, but is only a shadow, a reflection of its hidden, deep sides.
Such a worldview is uncritical, where the mind stumbles over difficulties in understanding, it gives way to faith. The supernatural, hidden and deep here is the lot of religious faith, and not logical conclusions and justifications. However, it is possible to believe in this way also in something that is absurd, absurd, and at the same time not have any rational evidence in the basis of this belief. The main disadvantage of such a worldview is that religious faith can be blind, based on speculation and suggestion, which means it can motivate a person to completely meaningless, and sometimes harmful efforts. At the same time, one can also find positive points. Belief in higher spiritual forces that monitor the world order and higher justice encourages a person to spiritual development, moral self-improvement, and the fight against his shortcomings and vices. It is able to fill the feeling of the spiritual emptiness of life, help it find meaning, give spiritual and psychological support for a person, clear his mind with pure and bright thoughts, bringing him into a state of peace of mind, harmony, kindness and love. Thus, religious faith acts as a source of energy or spiritual impulse for the believer. Religion, in its best manifestations, encourages a person to break away from the worries of everyday life, awakening lofty feelings in him, directing him to noble thoughts and deeds, inclining him to mutual assistance and mutual support. It fixes the norms and attitudes of proper behavior in society, indicates moral guidelines for this behavior, which contributes to the harmonization of relations in society. The religious worldview contributes to the unity of people on the basis of spiritual values, moreover, it is able to mobilize society for great achievements and transformations in order to improve life or face the threat of danger.
However, for the material development of society, for deepening the knowledge of the real world, such a worldview cannot be called progressive. In order for religion to play an exclusively positive role, it should not become the dominant form of worldview, but should only be its harmoniously complementary part. religious faith, which can be acceptable, should be based only on faith in bright and progressive ideals, supported by the results of knowledge and social practice.
An important achievement religious outlook can be considered a guess about the existing duality of the world, the difference between the world apparent, visible, being, on the one hand, and the real, deep world, essential- with another. However, this conjecture that has arisen has not yet been supported by a sufficient base of experimental data and the rigor of logical justifications, and therefore, was filled with very poor content that does not carry any serious practical significance.
With the developing tendencies of free-thinking, critically inquisitive, creative thinking, society begins to form philosophical type of outlook. It excludes neither elements of mythological nor elements of religious consciousness. However, the dominant features in it are the desire to search for and substantiate truths, logical reasoning, the development of analytical abilities, as well as self-criticism. It is these features that allow a person not to be content with only the superficial logic of the connection of the observed processes, but to penetrate in his knowledge into the deep, essential aspects of the world, capturing its actual interconnections of various levels of depth and universality. Nevertheless, having a high scientific potential, the philosophical worldview has not lost the shortcomings of its predecessors. Conjectures, inventions, illusions and uncritical faith in convenient, pleasant and beneficial for our thinking, the tendency to take what is wishful thinking, to create comfort for our own way of thinking, to the detriment of understanding the true and objective, and to this day are frequent companions of the modern worldview. At the same time, the modern worldview is largely the result of the achievements of the modern system of upbringing and education, it absorbs knowledge, logic of thinking and wisdom, developed and honed over the centuries, including by the scientific community. Thus, the unlimited potential of the philosophical worldview is used by each of us to the extent of our education, erudition, flexibility and depth of our thinking, commitment to rationalism and the search for objective truth.
Philosophy and life
The importance of philosophy in our life cannot be overestimated. However, in the minds of most modern people philosophy is opposed to life as something abstract, too abstract, divorced from real life problems and concerns. And it is not difficult to understand why this attitude has developed. Indeed, most of the problems that are considered by great philosophers, at first glance, are not relevant in our daily lives. Nevertheless, it was their ideas and reflections that contributed to the progressive development of society, which was accompanied by the creation of more and more comfortable living conditions for an increasing number of strata of society. It is the ideas of Renaissance humanism, the French Enlightenment, modern rationalism and empiricism, etc. led to the formation of that type of modern civilized society without the comfort of which we can no longer imagine our lives. Moreover, the potential of the ideas and reflections of great philosophers is not limited by the achievements of the past, this invaluable experience of human thought will serve as food for the mind and inspiration for many future generations of brilliant personalities who can change our world for the better for a long time to come.
Philosophy has many faces, it is not limited to truths that contribute to social progress, and also affects aspects of personal existence, including those that will be eternally relevant. However, the problems of the individual are such as the relationships within society are built, and any relationship is a product of the activity and thinking of the people themselves. Therefore, the degree of solving the problems of educating a person, his moral improvement and spiritual growth, the eradication of egoism and selfish orientations will forever serve as an indicator of harmony within society, and hence, ultimately, the quality of life in it. The more spiritually developed and morally perfect the majority of people in society are, the more they ennoble relations in it and the easier it becomes for everyone to fulfill themselves, reveal their talents and abilities for the benefit of the whole society, improving its quality of life. These topics are deeply disclosed in the works of Eastern sages (Confucius, Lao Tzu, Osho Rajanish), Russian thinkers (L.N. Tolstoy, N.A. Berdyaev, V.S. Solovyov, etc.), in Marxism, in works of I. Kant, James Redfield and others.
But the role of philosophy in our life is not limited to this either. Philosophy is not only the wisdom of the great thinkers of the past and research in the field of scientific philosophy, philosophy is also a way of thinking, a worldview of a modern educated person. Any person with a quality education and sufficient life experience is just as capable of philosophical thinking. We all enjoy the fruits of the development of philosophical thought. In our life, without knowing it, we use concepts and judgments, turns of thought that reflect the knowledge that was formed and honed through centuries of philosophical understanding of reality. We are born and brought up with a given, ready-made language field (speech structures) and it seems to us that it has always been like this with everyone, that from century to century human speech has remained more or less unchanged, just as adapted to communication and explanation of deep meanings, as now. But it's not. In order to achieve such a sufficiently perfect language, with the help of which we are now able to express the most subtle shades of meaning, humanity has gone through a very complex, contradictory process of its formation. Language is a field for our thinking, everything we think about, we think on the basis of speech structures. Therefore, the quality of our thinking is largely determined by how finely we master modern concepts and judgments, how skillfully we build connections between them. In other words, how much deeper we have absorbed the wisdom of the ages.
Thus, every modern educated person (whether he realizes it or not) has his own philosophy of life, his own philosophical position in life. Everyone strives to comprehend, analyze important situations in their lives, extract valuable experience from them, generalize it, on the basis of which to form certain strategies and principles of behavior. Another thing is that for some it serves as a kind of beacon on their life path, helps them choose the right path, take right decisions avoiding possible problems, while others have their philosophical position, their understanding of life, on the contrary, attracts these problems. The thing is that the more rude, straightforward, simplified a person relates to life, the more illusions and prejudices are formed in him, which means that sooner or later these delusions begin to negatively affect his life (through erroneous decisions). Reality begins to "punish" for its misunderstanding, destroy illusions, "lower a person to the ground." However, a more subtle, deeper, wiser attitude to life, as a rule, makes life easier for a person, especially in its second half, when the results of the path that he chose for himself earlier become more and more noticeable, i.e. when it begins to reap the fruits of what was laid down earlier.
Such a sensitive, wise attitude to life has a more direct connection with philosophy in its original sense. Philosophy in a narrow, literal sense is associated with the desire for wise thoughts and actions. It is this form of philosophy that is closest to the actual, everyday problems of the individual. Being wise, first of all, means understanding the laws of nature, history, life, grasping the deep relationships in them and coordinating one's own life with these laws. Closely related to this is another important characteristic of wisdom - foresight. A far-sighted decision proceeds from the most favorable result not only here and now, but also takes into account the prospects for the development of the situation. As Confucius said: “A person who does not look far is sure to face close troubles.” Today's success quickly becomes yesterday's, and future unresolved problems, no matter how much you put them on tomorrow, sooner or later will become real. A wise person is ready to sacrifice today for the sake of long-term favorable prospects. Wisdom is also associated with the ability to find solutions to the most difficult life situations and problems, to find compromises, to avoid extremes, to find the measure, the golden mean in everything. All these abilities are the result of a deep understanding of the laws and relationships of life.
Wisdom is an important indicator of our mind. Many people who specialize only in the development of intellectual skills miss something very important and cannot always be described as smart. You can spend your whole life addicted to various activities that develop intelligence, be it chess, various puzzles, puzzles or crossword puzzles, etc., but this is not the way that is guaranteed to make a person really smart. The mind is more than just intellectual skills. An intelligent person is one who subtly understands and foresees the course of real life events, and intellectual skills do not yet guarantee this, although they are an important condition for this. The mind is also the ability to think wisely, the ability to grasp the very essence, avoiding stereotypes, bias and other kinds of delusions, as well as the ability to draw accurate conclusions. Intellectual skills and wisdom are qualities that complement each other. A person deprived of intellectual abilities is hardly able to understand all the subtleties of the relationships that determine the events of our lives. A rich life experience can make a person wise, but without an intellect capable of anticipating the course of events through deep analysis, this is an experience of trial and error. A person who has gained wisdom by stepping on the same rake many times sometimes can hardly be called a sage. Wise is the one who draws his wisdom no longer from the experience of mistakes, but from a deep understanding of the situation. At the same time, intellect without wisdom is blind, it's like a powerful tool in the hands of an inept person. You can be a skilled chess player, calculating many moves of your opponent in advance, and at the same time be too short-sighted in life, because life is much deeper, more subtle and flexible than the options on the chessboard. Life is always more complicated than already formed logic, it is always capable of surprising logical thinking, which must be improved under its influence. We must constantly overcome ourselves, our logic of thinking, in order to avoid stereotypes and prejudices, in order to become truly smart, wise people.
We can say that philosophy as wisdom is the art of knowing the truth, the ability to correctly comprehend and apply one's life experience. In this sense, a philosopher is not a profession, but a degree of personality development that allows one to master this art. For example, some writers, such as L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, A.I. Solzhenitsyn, P. Coelho, J. Redfield. Many scientists considered themselves first of all as philosophers and only then as mathematicians, physicists, etc. (G. V. Leibniz, R. Descartes, B. Pascal, F. Bacon, I. Kant). In this sense, one can also single out philosophers-physicians: Hippocrates, Avicenna, Paracelsus.
Comparison of philosophy with art, skill is connected with the fact that in the knowledge of the true and wise, many psychological moments interfere with us: prejudice, stereotypedness, schematism and stereotyped thinking. The wisdom of the great philosophers lies precisely in the fact that they skillfully separate the subjective from the objective, the wheat from the chaff, the flies from the cutlets. It must be borne in mind that the world as we see it is in fact not always the way it seems to us. Each person sees and understands this world differently, from different angles. Everyone receives in their own way a unique flow of knowledge, information, emotions, experience; is in a unique life situation; as a rule, communicates with people of only a certain circle (according to common interests, according to a common vision of the world or attitude towards it); selectively watches programs, films, selects books, magazines and articles on the Internet. Therefore, the information that reaches him and comprehends by him turns out to be to some extent incomplete and one-sided, sometimes even distorted. And this contributes to the formation of many misconceptions and illusions. So, any person lives, as it were, in his own semantic reality, in something different from those realities in which other people live. In these realities, of course, there is much in common (due to the general system of education, culture, media, common aspects of life), but they never completely coincide, which affects, for example, the difficulties of mutual understanding between people. In fact, any conflict is a clash of those semantic realities that we live by. When these realities largely coincide, there is always ground for understanding, finding compromises, and adjusting one's understanding of life. But when people are too far apart in terms of worldview and worldview, then their semantic realities can violently collide with each other, without finding common ground. Each proceeds from how he sees and understands life, and the behavior of the other, his speech may not fit into the understanding of reality that each of them lives in, their expectations from the other. So, the essence of the conflict is almost always the desire to impose on another one's understanding of reality, that it is his semantic reality, his understanding of life that is more correct. However, it is far from always the case precisely in the difference between understanding the right and the reasonable, sometimes the desires, interests and selfish motives of people collide. A constructive way of solving such problems is connected with the desire to understand the other side, to go beyond the limits of one's own semantic reality in order to be able to stand in its place, look at the contradiction from the side and, thereby, find an objective basis for solving problems.
We often underestimate our tendency to take what is desirable and convenient for reality. The fact is that we tend to comprehend new information, comparing it with what we already know, relying on our past experience, building certain associations with its elements. At the same time, we tend to emotionally experience the events that are happening around us. The experience that is deposited in our memory is almost always emotionally colored to one degree or another, and a person is positively disposed to some information, and negatively to some. As a result, as life experience is accumulated, a person develops emotionally significant accents in understanding the world and life. Those. some moments for him become more important or relevant than others, and some of his perceptions are neglected. So, in a whole speech, a text, a person is more focuses attention only on certain phrases, turns of speech and understands the whole speech somewhat differently than the meaning that was invested in it. What does not correspond to his understanding of life or is irrelevant to him (does not correspond to his system of world perception accents), his consciousness, as a rule, ignores or comprehends insufficiently qualitatively, sometimes dismissively. In other words, he develops predilections, prejudices and preferences, he becomes a prisoner of illusions. Therefore, subsequently, judgments, thoughts that a person builds, comprehending the experience gained, often does not accurately reflect reality the relationships that exist within it. In this case, making decisions based on such reasoning, he creates more problems for itself, his reality begins, as it were, to “punish” for its incorrect understanding, “to give life lessons », adjust his mindset .
This feature of perception is often used in politics. For example, in order to discredit a person, his words are taken out of context, as a result, the meaning is distorted, up to the opposite. This psychological feature is also used under totalitarian regimes to manipulate public consciousness. With the help of culture, the media, the education system, accents beneficial to the regime are placed in the minds of people, and then the judgments built by their associative thinking, linking these accents together, will have a given, initially thought out, beneficial meaning for the regime.
This mechanism of consciousness can be illustrated by the image of a grid or a drawing on a sheet of paper. Our picture of the world is not an absolutely complete and accurate reproduction of reality. We learn the external world in parts, more and more filling our picture of the world with details and nuances. The latter can be compared to dots or knots on a blank sheet of paper. The richer our experience, the more this sheet is dotted with such points, and the more meaningful we live, the more we strive to understand how the world works, to identify the relationships and patterns of life, the more these points are intertwined with patterns. So, in this respect, our perception is like a fishing net: the more experience and knowledge, the fewer cells in the grid (reflecting the interconnections of the world), the fewer gaps, voids, and the more subtle and deep knowledge we are able to perceive. And vice versa, the less meaningful experience, the larger the cells in the network, which means that the more potentially useful information can seep through it. In order to master more subtle and deeper knowledge, you must first master the simpler knowledge that underlies it. To study higher mathematics, it is necessary to have basic skills in algebra and geometry. And if we do not have basic knowledge in some area, then there is not that cell, that shelf in the mind, thanks to which it would be possible to streamline, for the purpose of understanding, more complex knowledge in this area. In this case, we are not able to extract useful experience and knowledge from the information received. Our consciousness ignores its importance, tending to form a biased or even negative attitude towards it.
At the same time, if our perception of the world is distorted (the system of accents, the pattern of relationships is incorrect), then we are willing to believe in something that is not true (but corresponds to the system of accents, the pattern of relationships in consciousness), something that potentially can harm us under the influence of delusions. So, the degree of approximation of our drawing to understanding the essence of real events of reality depends on the process of perception of the world and its comprehension. It is important not only to have rich life experience, but also to comprehend it correctly. You can connect the dots, symbolizing the data of our experience, in completely different ways, and the figures that are obtained in the figure depend on this. Those. two people who have received exactly the same experience can comprehend it differently (connect units of experience), which means that their picture of the world will be different. So, great importance has the specifics of ordering, understanding our experience, the ability to capture the real interconnections of the world, life. In this, we are also often hindered by emotional associations, largely under the influence of which we comprehend the information received.
If we have a negative attitude to the source from which the information was received or to this information itself, or we are under the influence of a negative mood, then we perceive such information with caution or even skepticism, in a negative way, with distrust. And vice versa, when we have a positive mood or a positive attitude towards the source, then the perception is also not quite adequate, in speech, text, phrases are snatched out that are associated for themselves in a positive way.
Another important point that influences our perception is our expectations. They influence the formation of the understood meaning, based on them, we make preliminary sketches of the meaning, which affect the subsequent course of our thinking. You must always take into account your own bias, be capable of self-critical, thoughtful analysis.
A wise person is just the one who skillfully avoids his bias, strives to understand the world as it really is, who skillfully places accents in understanding, which means who lives in a semantic reality that is closest to the actual events of life, the world, its actual relationships. Thanks to this, he acquires the ability to often "get out of the water", to avoid immersion in the problems of everyday life. He will almost always see a thread of relationships, clinging to which, you can find a way out of any most difficult, confusing and even extreme situation, but more often he will not allow such a situation itself, bypass it.
Thus, philosophy carries within itself the knowledge that allow a person not to go through life “blindly”, through trial and error, but to be far-sighted, avoid many problems. And in this sense, she is rational core, the foundation of a correct worldview. Philosophy is everything that connects us with life, i.e. gives us not an illusory, but a true understanding of ongoing events, grasps their very essence, all the subtlety of their cause-and-effect relationships. Philosophical knowledge, incorporating an understanding of these relationships, helps us navigate the world, correctly place accents and priorities in life, make the right decisions, avoid unnecessary problems, and find the best ways to achieve our goals.
Questions and tasks
1. Explain what attitude, worldview and worldview are. What is their difference?
2. Expand the essence of the relationship of worldview with philosophy.
3. Describe the content of the worldview. What do you think are the most important moments in it?
4. What is the role of ideals for a person?
5. What is the role of beliefs for a person?
6. What role do you think values play in society?
7. What is the peculiarity of the mythological worldview? What are his features?
8. Describe your religious outlook. What are its positive and what are its negative aspects?
9. What is the peculiarity of the philosophical worldview?
10. What is the role of philosophy in the life of the individual and society?
11. What is the reason for the difference in the understanding of the world by different people?
12. Why can our consciousness be compared to a grid?
Conclusion
The modern world is full of problems that challenge the development of human civilization. Many of these problems are related to the neglect of the knowledge and wisdom accumulated over the centuries. A person brought up on the values of the modern era does not even have an impulse to wisdom, to the search for truth, to follow eternal values. Selfishness, selfish thoughts and material, sometimes base values are put at the forefront. This leads to a tense situation in many areas of life, and if the situation is not changed, then in the end it will begin to seriously affect both economic and scientific and technological progress. The debt crisis of the developed countries of the modern world and their international policy, the totality of the corruption component in Russia are vivid confirmation of this. Shaking the spiritual foundations of society, erosion objective values in concepts, the inversion of value orientations and the discrediting of humanistic ideals will certainly affect the decisions that are made in the material sphere of society.
In this regard, a return to the origins of understanding philosophy as wisdom and quality education in this area is a vital step. After all, philosophy in its original understanding develops in a person the discipline of thinking, his versatility, the ability to understand and correctly assess the situation, the desire to be as far-sighted as possible. Philosophy as wisdom encourages a person to self-development, protects him from dangerous stereotypes of life, helps to streamline thoughts in accordance with the understanding of the wise and useful. Philosophical thinking helps to make the complex easier to understand, and at the same time makes the simple and familiar more complex and mysterious, i.e. enlivens the world with colors, makes it more amazing and exciting, awakens sleeping thinking in us, shakes our stereotypes, encourages us to look at the world with different eyes, finding new meanings and shades in it.
Philosophy, instilling a culture of thinking, the ability to penetrate into the essence of things and events, capturing their interconnections, thereby helps to correctly assess the possibilities of both an individual and society as a whole, and also helps to use them correctly. It helps to see those opportunities that could have been missed with an ordinary view of the world, and at the same time to correctly assess how real and feasible these opportunities are, as well as how reasonable it is to follow the path of their implementation. The value of philosophical skills and knowledge cannot be overestimated, because our thinking determines those decisions that ultimately change the outside world.
Literature on the topic "Introduction to Philosophy":
1. Alekseev, P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: a textbook. /P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin. – M.: Prospekt, 2008. – 608 p.
2. Gubin, V.D. Philosophy: actual problems: textbook for university students. /V.D. Gubin. - M., 2005. - 288 p.
3. Mamardashvili, M.K. How do I understand philosophy? / M.K. Mamardashvili. - M., 1990. - 368 p.
4. Nagel, T. What does it all mean? A very brief introduction to philosophy. / T. Nagel. - M: Idea - Press, 2001.
5. Nikiforov, A. L. The nature of philosophy: Fundamentals of philosophy / Nikiforov. - M .: Idea - Press, 2001.
6. Orlov, V.V. Basics general philosophy/ V.V. Orlov. - Perm, Ed. PGU. 2007. - 258 p.
7. Sadovnichiy, V.S. Teaching and Wisdom in a Globalizing World// Questions of Philosophy, 2006. No. 2. P.3-15.
8. Spirkin, A.G. Philosophy / A.G. Spirkin. – M.: Gardariki, 2008. – 735 p.
9. Frolov, I.T. Introduction to Philosophy / I.T. Frolov. - M.: Respublika, 2003. - 623 p.
Basic terms and concepts:
Abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction) is the abstraction of essential properties, connections or aspects of reality from less essential ones in relation to the goal of cognition.
Agnosticism (from other Greek agnostos - unknowable, unknown) is a trend in philosophy that denies the cognizability of the objective, independent of our sensory perception, peace.
Axiology (from other Greek axia - value) - the doctrine of values.
Anthropology (from other Greek. anthropos - man and logos - word, speech) - a set of scientific disciplines that study a person, his origin, development, features of interaction with the outside world.
Anthropomorphism (from other Greek antropos - a person and morphe - a form) is a mental likening of external reality to a person, transferring human qualities and properties to the world or to its separate parts.
Universal - a concept that denotes the totality of all relationships in the world, formed as a result of all interactions and defining laws and patterns of various levels of depth (generalization). It is fundamentally different from the concept of the general as a generalizing feature.
Epistemology (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge, knowledge and logos - word, speech) or another name epistemology (from the Greek episteme - scientific knowledge, science, "reliable knowledge" logos - word, speech) is the doctrine of the ways and possibilities knowledge of the world. Within the framework of the corresponding section in philosophy, the mechanisms by which a person cognizes the world around are studied, the very possibility of its cognition is substantiated.
Determinism (from Latin determinare - to determine, limit) is a doctrine that asserts the universal conditionality, the interdependence of all events in the world, the dependence of each of them on conditions. The scientific principle of determinism is included in the structure of the scientific method, aiming research at identifying causes and patterns in nature, society or thinking. The opposite doctrine, which admits the existence of absolutely random, unconditioned events, is called indeterminism.
Dialectics (from other Greek dialektike - the art of arguing, reasoning) is a way of thinking that seeks to comprehend an object in its integrity and development, in the unity of its opposite properties and tendencies, in diverse connections with other objects and processes. The original meaning of this concept was associated with a philosophical dialogue, the ability to conduct a discussion, listen to and take into account the opinions of opponents, trying to find the path to the truth.
Dualism (from Latin dualis - dual) - a philosophical doctrine,
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
federal state budgetary educational institution
higher professional education
"Transbaikal State University"
(FGBOU VPO "ZabGU")
Department of Philosophy
TEST
discipline: "Philosophy"
on the topic: “Worldview. Historical Forms of Worldview, Features of the Mythological and Religious Worldview»
Introduction
1. Worldview and its structure
2. Historical forms of worldview
Features of the mythological and religious worldview
Conclusion
Introduction
Questions about the structure of the world, about the material and spiritual, about regularity and chance, about stability and change, about movement, development, progress and its criteria, about truth and its difference from errors and deliberate distortions, and about many other things are somehow put in accordance with the need for a common orientation and self-determination of man in the world.
The study of philosophy is designed to help transform a person's spontaneously formed views into a more carefully thought-out, well-founded worldview. A conscious attitude to the problems of worldview is a necessary condition for the formation of personality, which today has become an urgent requirement of the time.
Worldview is a multidimensional phenomenon, it is formed in various areas human life, practice, culture. Philosophy is one of the spiritual formations included in the worldview. Thus, the first task becomes obvious - to identify the main historical forms of the worldview
In addition to professional skills, knowledge, and erudition so necessary for solving specific problems, each of us needs something more. It requires a broad outlook, the ability to see trends, prospects for the development of the world, to understand the essence of everything that happens to us. It is also important to understand the meaning and purpose of our actions, our life: why we do this or that, what we strive for, what this gives people. Such ideas about the world and a person's place in it, if they can somehow be realized or even formulated, are called a worldview.
1. Worldview and its structure
Worldview is understood as a system of ideas, assessments, norms, moral principles and beliefs that give rise to a certain way of perceiving everyday reality. A worldview is made up of elements belonging to all forms of social consciousness; an important role in it is played by philosophical, scientific, political views, as well as moral and aesthetic views. Scientific knowledge, being included in the worldview system, serves the purpose of orienting a person or group in the surrounding social and natural reality; in addition, science rationalizes man's relationship to reality, ridding him of prejudices and delusions. Moral principles and the norm serve as a regulatory indicator of the relationship and behavior of people and, together with aesthetic views, determine the attitude to the environment, forms of activity, its goals and results. In all class societies, religion also plays an important role in shaping the worldview.
Philosophical views and beliefs form the foundation of the entire worldview system: it is philosophy that performs the functions of substantiating worldview attitudes; it theoretically comprehends the aggregate data of science and practice and seeks to express them in the form of an objective and historically determined picture of reality.
There are two levels of vision:
everyday;
theoretical.
The first is formed spontaneously, in the process of everyday life, the second occurs when a person approaches the world from the standpoint of reason and logic. Philosophy is a theoretically developed worldview, a system of the most general theoretical views on the world, on the place of man in it, revealing various forms of his attitude to the world.
The structure of the worldview can be divided into four main components:
cognitive component. It is based on generalized knowledge - everyday, professional, scientific, etc. It represents a concrete scientific and universal picture of the world, systematizing and generalizing the results of individual and social knowledge, thinking styles of a particular community, people or era.
value-normative component. It includes values, ideals, beliefs, beliefs, norms, directive actions, etc. certain public regulators. The human value system includes ideas about good and evil, happiness and unhappiness, the purpose and meaning of life. For example: life is the main value of a person, human security is also a great value, and so on. other social ideals. The consequence of a stable, repetitive assessment by a person of his relations with other people are social norms: moral, religious, legal, etc., regulating everyday life, both for an individual and for the whole society. In them, to a greater extent than in values, there is an order, a binding moment, a requirement to act in a certain way. Norms are the means that brings together what is valuable for a person with his practical behavior.
emotional-volitional component. In order for knowledge, values and norms to be realized in practical deeds and actions, it is necessary to master them emotionally and volitionally, turn them into personal views, convictions, beliefs, as well as develop a certain psychological attitude towards readiness to act. The formation of this attitude is carried out in the emotional-volitional component of the worldview component.
practical component. A worldview is not just a generalization of knowledge, values, beliefs, attitudes, but a person's real readiness for a certain type of behavior in specific circumstances. Without a practical component, the worldview would have an extremely abstract, abstract character. Even if this worldview orients a person not to participation in life, not to an active, but to a contemplative position, it still projects, stimulates a certain type of behavior. Based on the foregoing, one can define a worldview as a set of views, assessments, norms and attitudes that determine a person's attitude to the world and act as guidelines and regulators of his behavior.
A person's worldview is in constant development and includes two relatively independent parts: worldview (worldview) and worldview. Perception of the world is connected with the ability of a person to cognize the world at a sensually visual level, and in this sense it determines the emotional mood of a person. The meaning of the world outlook is that it serves as the basis for the formation of the interests and needs of a person, the system of his value orientations, and hence the motives of activity.
For the qualitative characteristics of the worldview, it is essential that it contains not only knowledge, but also beliefs. If knowledge is predominantly a substantive component of the worldview system, then beliefs imply a moral and emotional-psychological attitude to both knowledge and reality itself.
2. Historical forms of worldview
The universal picture of the world is a certain amount of knowledge accumulated by science and the historical experience of people. A person always thinks about what his place in the world is, why he lives, what is the meaning of his life, why there is life and death; how one should treat other people and nature, etc.
Every epoch, every social group and, consequently, every person has a more or less clear and distinct or vague idea about the solution of issues that concern humanity. The system of these decisions and answers forms the worldview of the era as a whole and of the individual. Answering the question about the place of a person in the world, about the relation of a person to the world, people, on the basis of the worldview at their disposal, develop a picture of the world, which gives generalized knowledge about the structure, general structure, patterns of emergence and development of everything that surrounds a person in one way or another. .
Worldview is a developing phenomenon, therefore it passes through certain forms in its development. Chronologically, these forms follow each other. However, in reality, they interact and complement each other.
mythology;
philosophy.
As a complex spiritual phenomenon, the worldview includes: ideals, behavioral motives, interests, value orientations, principles of cognition, moral standards, aesthetic views, etc. The worldview is the starting point and an active spiritual factor in the development and change of the surrounding world by a person. Philosophy as a worldview integrally unites and generalizes all worldview attitudes that are formed in the mind of a person from various sources, gives them a holistic and complete look.
Philosophical worldview was formed historically in connection with the development of society itself. Historically, the first type - the mythological worldview - represents the first attempt by man to explain the origin and structure of the world. The religious worldview, being, like mythology, a fantastic reflection of reality, differs from mythology in the belief in the existence of supernatural forces and their dominant role in the universe and people's lives.
Philosophy as a worldview is a qualitatively new type. It differs from mythology and religion in its orientation towards a rational explanation of the world. The most general ideas about nature, society, man become the subject of theoretical consideration and logical analysis. The philosophical worldview inherited from mythology and religion their worldview character, but unlike mythology and religion, which are characterized by a sensual-figurative attitude to reality and contain artistic and religious elements, this type of worldview, as a rule, is a logically ordered system of knowledge, characterized by the desire theoretically substantiate the provisions and principles.
The basis of this typology is knowledge, which is the core of the worldview. Since the main way of obtaining, storing and processing knowledge is science, insofar as the typology of the worldview is carried out on the peculiarity of the attitude of the worldview to science:
mythology - pre-scientific worldview;
religion is an extra-scientific worldview;
philosophy is a scientific worldview.
This typology is very arbitrary.
All of the above historical forms of worldview in certain forms have survived to this day and continue to be present (transformed) in fiction, customs and traditions, the mentality of a particular people, art, science, everyday ideas.
3. Features of the mythological and religious worldview
worldview myth religion
People already in historical times created ideas about the world that surrounds them, and about the forces that govern both the world and man. The existence of these views and ideas is evidenced by the material remains of ancient cultures, archaeological finds. The oldest written monuments of the Middle Eastern regions do not represent integral philosophical systems with an accurate conceptual apparatus: there is neither the problem of the existence and existence of the world, nor honesty in the question of the possibility of a person to know the world.
Myth is one of the forms of expression by a person of his real attitude to the world at the initial stage and mediated comprehension of social relations of a certain integrity. This is the first (albeit fantastic) answer to questions about the origin of the world, about the meaning of the natural order. It also defines the purpose and content of individual human existence. The mythical image of the world is closely connected with religious ideas, contains a number of irrational elements, is distinguished by anthropomorphism and personifies the forces of nature. However, it also contains the sum of knowledge about nature and human society, acquired on the basis of centuries of experience.
The famous English ethnographer B. Malinovsky noted that the myth, as it existed in the primitive community, that is, in its living primordial form, is not a story that is told, but a reality that is lived. This is not an intellectual exercise or artistic creation, but a practical guide to the actions of a primitive collective. The myth serves to justify certain social attitudes, to sanction a certain type of belief and behavior. During the period of domination of mythological thinking, there was no need to obtain special knowledge.
Thus, myth is not the original form of knowledge, but special kind worldviews, a specific figurative syncretic idea of natural phenomena and collective life. In myth, as the earliest form of human culture, the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, moral, aesthetic and emotional assessment of the situation were combined. If, in relation to myth, one can speak of cognition, then the word “cognition” here has the meaning not of the traditional acquisition of knowledge, but of a worldview, sensual empathy.
It was impossible for a primitive man to fix his knowledge, and to be convinced of his ignorance. For him, knowledge did not exist as something objective, independent of his inner world.
In primitive consciousness, what is thought must coincide with what is experienced, acting with what acts. In mythology, a person dissolves in nature, merges with it as its inseparable particle.
syncretism - there are no clear differences between material and spiritual phenomena;
anthropomorphism - the identification of natural forces with human forces, their spiritualization;
polytheism (polytheism) - every natural phenomenon has its own reason - this is God. The gods have human traits, vices, but they are immortal.
The formation of the world was understood in mythology as its creation or as a gradual development from a primitive formless state, as ordering, transformation from chaos into space, as creation through overcoming demonic forces.
The main principle of solving worldview issues in mythology was genetic. Explanations about the beginning of the world, the origin of natural and social phenomena boiled down to a story about who gave birth to whom. In the famous "Theogony" of Hesiod and in the "Iliad" and "Odyssey" of Homer - the most complete collection ancient Greek myths- the process of creation of the world was presented as follows. In the beginning, there was only eternal, boundless, dark Chaos. In it was the source of the life of the world. Everything arose from the boundless Chaos - the whole world and the immortal gods. From Chaos came the goddess Earth - Gaia. From Chaos, the source of life, a mighty, all-revitalizing love, Eros, also rose.
Boundless Chaos gave birth to Darkness - Erebus and dark Night - Nyukta. And from Night and Darkness came the eternal Light - Ether and the joyful bright Day - Hemera. Light spread over the world, and night and day began to replace each other. The mighty, fertile Earth gave birth to the boundless blue sky - Uranus, and the Sky spread over the Earth. The high Mountains, born of the Earth, proudly rose to him, and the eternally noisy Sea spread wide. Sky, Mountains and Sea are born from mother Earth, they have no father. The further history of the creation of the world is connected with the marriage of Earth and Uranus - Heaven and their descendants. A similar scheme is present in the mythology of other peoples of the world. For example, we can get acquainted with the same ideas of the ancient Jews in the Bible - the Book of Genesis.
Myth usually combines two aspects - diachronic (a story about the past) and synchronic (an explanation of the present and future). Thus, with the help of myth, the past was connected with the future, and this ensured the spiritual connection of generations. The content of the myth seemed to the primitive man to be extremely real, deserving of absolute trust.
mythology played huge role in the lives of people in their early stages of development. Myths, as noted earlier, affirmed the system of values accepted in a given society, supported and sanctioned certain norms of behavior. And in this sense they were important stabilizers. public life. This does not exhaust the stabilizing role of mythology. The main significance of myths is that they established harmony between the world and man, nature and society, society and the individual, and thus ensured the inner harmony of human life.
The practical significance of mythology in the worldview has not been lost at the present time. Both Marx, Engels and Lenin, as well as supporters of opposite views - Nietzsche, Freud, Fromm, Camus, Schubart, resorted to the images of mythology, mainly Greek, Roman and a little ancient Germanic. The mythological basis highlights the first historical type of worldview, now preserved only as an auxiliary one.
At an early stage of human history, mythology was not the only ideological form. Religion also existed during this period. Close to the mythological worldview, although different from it, was the religious worldview, which developed from the depths of the not yet dissected, not differentiated social consciousness. Like mythology, religion appeals to fantasy and feelings. However, unlike myth, religion does not "mix" the earthly and the sacred, but in the deepest and irreversible way separates them into two opposite poles. The creative almighty force - God - stands above nature and outside nature. The existence of God is experienced by man as a revelation. As a revelation, a person is given to know that his soul is immortal, eternal life and a meeting with God await him beyond the grave.
For religion, the world has a reasonable meaning and purpose. The spiritual beginning of the world, its center, a specific reference point among the relativity and fluidity of the world's diversity is God. God gives wholeness and unity to the whole world. It directs the course of world history and establishes the moral sanction of human actions. And finally, in the person of God the world has the highest authority , a source of strength and help, giving a person the opportunity to be heard and understood. Religion, religious consciousness, religious attitude to the world did not remain vital. Throughout the history of mankind, they, like other cultural formations, developed, acquired diverse forms in the East and West, in different historical eras. But all of them were united by the fact that at the center of any religious worldview is the search for higher values, the true path of life, and the fact that both these values and the path of life leading to them are transferred to a transcendent, otherworldly area, not to the earthly, but to the “eternal " life. All deeds and deeds of a person and even his thoughts are evaluated, approved or condemned according to the highest, absolute criterion. First of all, it should be noted that the representations embodied in myths were closely intertwined with rituals and served as an object of faith. In primitive society, mythology was in close interaction with religion. However, it would be wrong to unequivocally state that they were inseparable. Mythology exists separately from religion as an independent, relatively independent form of social consciousness. But in the earliest stages of the development of society, mythology and religion formed a single whole. From the content side, that is, from the point of view of worldview constructions, mythology and religion are inseparable. It cannot be said that some myths are "religious" and others are "mythological". However, religion has its own specifics. And this specificity does not lie in a special type of worldview constructions (for example, those in which the division of the world into natural and supernatural prevails) and not in a special relationship to these worldview constructions (the attitude of faith). The division of the world into two levels is inherent in mythology at a fairly high stage of development, and the attitude of faith is also an integral part of the mythological consciousness. The specificity of religion is due to the fact that the main element of religion is the cult system, that is, the system of ritual actions aimed at establishing certain relations with the supernatural. And therefore, every myth becomes religious to the extent that it is included in the cult system, acts as its content side. Worldview constructions, being included in the cult system, acquire the character of a dogma. And this gives the worldview a special spiritual and practical character. Worldview constructions become the basis for formal regulation and regulation, streamlining and preserving mores, customs, and traditions. With the help of rituals, religion cultivates human feelings of love, kindness, tolerance, compassion, mercy, duty, justice, etc., giving them a special value, associating their presence with the sacred, the supernatural. The main function of religion is to help a person overcome the historically changeable, transient, relative aspects of his being and elevate a person to something absolute, eternal. In philosophical language, religion is called upon to “root” a person in the transcendent. In the spiritual and moral sphere, this is manifested in giving norms, values and ideals an absolute, unchanging character, independent of the conjuncture of the spatio-temporal coordinates of human existence, social institutions, etc. Thus, religion gives meaning and knowledge, and hence stability of human existence, helps him to overcome worldly difficulties. With the development of human society, the establishment by a person of certain patterns, the improvement of the cognitive apparatus, the possibility of a new form of mastering worldview problems arose. This form is not only spiritual and practical, but also theoretical. The Logos, the mind, comes to replace the image and symbol. Philosophy is born as an attempt to solve the main worldview problems by means of reason, i.e., thinking based on concepts and judgments that are connected with each other according to certain logical laws. In contrast to the religious worldview with its predominant attention to the relationship of man to superior forces and beings, philosophy brought to the fore the intellectual aspects of the worldview, reflecting the growing need in society to understand the world and man from the standpoint of knowledge. Initially, she entered the historical arena as a search for worldly wisdom. Philosophy inherited from mythology and religion their ideological character, their ideological schemes, that is, the whole set of questions about the origin of the world as a whole, about its structure, about the origin of man and his position in the world, etc. It also inherited the entire volume of positive knowledge, which mankind has accumulated over thousands of years. However, the solution of worldview problems in the emerging philosophy took place from a different angle, namely from the standpoint of rational assessment, from the standpoint of reason. Therefore, we can say that philosophy is a theoretically formulated worldview. Philosophy is a worldview, a system of general theoretical views on the world as a whole, a person's place in it, an understanding of the various forms of the relationship of a person to the world, a person to a person. Philosophy is a theoretical level of outlook. Consequently, the worldview in philosophy appears in the form of knowledge and has a systematized, ordered character. And this moment essentially brings together philosophy and science. Conclusion Despite the fact that in the course of history states, ethnic composition, technologies, level of knowledge change, worldview issues continue to remain unresolved, which makes them modern today. Philosophy as a worldview on a rational level is the deepest understanding of the world. It is based on the theoretical substantiation of the laws of development of objective processes, but can only be carried out on the basis of their sensory perception (one's own or other people), therefore, the worldview understanding of the world must be considered in the unity and interaction of the sensory and rational levels. List of sources used
1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. Philosophy: textbook. - 4th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Prospekt, 2012. - 592 p. Lipsky B.I. Philosophy: textbook for bachelors / B.I. Lipsky, B.V. Markov. - M.: Yurait Publishing House, 2012. - 495 p. Asmus V.F. ancient philosophy. 3rd ed. - M.: Higher school, 2001. - 400 p. Grinenko G.V. History of philosophy: textbook / G.V. Grinenko. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Yurait Publishing House, 2011. - 689 p. Wolf R. On Philosophy. Textbook / Per. from English. Ed. V.A. Lektorsky, G.A. Alekseeva. - M.: AspeksPress, 1996. - 415 p. Introduction to Philosophy: Textbook for High Schools / Ed. coll.: Frolov I.T. and others. 4th ed., trans. and additional - M.: Cultural Revolution, Republic, 2007. - 623 p.
Man is the most perfect being in the world. He constantly inquires, posing a variety of questions: What is the universe? What is a star? What is love? These questions are many. In the process of searching for answers to them, a person acquires knowledge, experience, begins to think about the world order, about the place of man in it, about the fate of mankind, about life, about death. All this leads to the formation of his worldview.
outlook is a system of generalized views, ideas, assessments that provide a holistic vision of the world and a person's place in it. Term "worldview" was introduced by the German philosopher I.Kant and literally means attribute of human consciousness. Therefore, a worldview is not just a generalized idea of the world, but a form self-awareness person.
Since for a person the whole world turns out to be divided into two parts: into my own "I" and "not I", i.e. world that includes nature, society, culture and relationships between people, then the question about the relation of man to the world and is fundamental question of worldview.
The main issue of worldview indicates that the worldview itself is a complex spiritual phenomenon, which consists of such elements How:
- knowledge is the basis of the worldview. The worldview includes not all knowledge, but vital for a person, which reveal the essence of the relationship between a person and the world;
- beliefs – it is a solid system of beliefs that has been established in the mind of man. Beliefs can change and the reason for this is new knowledge that is constantly being refined and supplemented;
- values It is a positive or negative attitude towards the phenomena of the surrounding world. They embody the special attitude of people to everything around them in accordance with their needs and interests;
- ideals - it is an imaginary model of perfection to be pursued as the ultimate goal. The peculiarity of ideals is to get ahead of the reflection of reality;
- faith - it is a form and way of perceiving social information, values, ideals of social life, which are not set by practical experience, but are accepted as obvious facts. However, faith is related to doubt. Doubt is an obligatory moment of a meaningful position of any thinking person. The presence of doubt in the worldview of an individual finds expression in the positions: dogmatism - unconditional acceptance of a particular point of view, system of orientations or skepticism - disbelief in anything, rejection of any point of view;
- living standards- these are samples, standards of activity that have developed historically, as certain rules of conduct.
worldview has its own structure , which is based on the physiological and psychological mechanisms and means of cognition of the world characteristic of a person, namely: the mind, feelings, will, etc. Hence, in the structure of the worldview, there are:
- attitude - This is the emotional and psychological level of the worldview. This is surprise, fear, admiration, loneliness, grief, despair;
- worldview - this is an active level of worldview, which includes the experience of forming cognitive ideas about the world;
- understanding of the world - this is a cognitive-intellectual level; it is a system of general concepts, judgments and conclusions about the world as a whole and the place of man in it. Worldview can be: 1) mundane i.e. worldly, when based on sensory experience, traditions, faith; 2) theoretical which is based on knowledge of laws, scientific theories and principles. The theoretical worldview is the highest stage in the development of a worldview. It is obvious that mastering it is the main task of the entire process of becoming and improving a person.
Hence, outlook is the integral integrity of knowledge and values, mind and intuition, intellect and action, critical doubt and conscious conviction. Hence, the world view performs such functions (i.e. work): 1) cognitive and indicative (which is provided by worldview knowledge and assessments); 2) socio-practical (which is based on worldview beliefs and principles of activity).
The outlook is historical. What does it mean? This means that the worldview of a person, society is constantly changing. For example, in different eras there were different types of worldview systems :
1) cosmocentrism in the era of antiquity, where nature and the Hellenic sages of the 7th-6th centuries BC were at the center of the study. sought to recognize the single essence of everything around;
2) theocentrism, characteristic of the Middle Ages of the 5th-15th centuries, where all the basic concepts of medieval thinking were correlated with God;
3) anthropocentrism, characteristic of the Renaissance of the 14th-16th centuries, where a person felt and realized that he was the center of the universe. Such an understanding of the worldview gives rise to the need to single out not only its historical types, but also historical forms.
Historical forms of worldview, which have been formed throughout the history of mankind, there are mythological, religious And philosophical. Let's consider them.
Mythological worldview- this is a universal form of worldview, which is characteristic of the entire primitive society. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that the first worldview of all ethnic groups was mythology. Mythology in Greek means: mifos – legend And logos – doctrine . Mythology tried to explain the world through the transfer to it of the properties and qualities that characterized the person himself, as well as the relationship between people.
Myth, as the first form of worldview, combined the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, and early forms of art. Myth is an undifferentiated form of knowledge, which is called syncretism. For mythological worldview the following peculiarities :
1) fusion of thoughts and actions;
2) the personal "I" and the world were merged into one;
3) the absence of differences between the object and the subject of activity;
4) anthropomorphism - the transfer of human properties to nature;
5) imagery (the world was perceived in images, not in concepts);
6) the main thing was the substantiation of the connection of the individual with the genus.
The mythological worldview is captured in fairy tales, legends, which is typical for all peoples without exception, because they all went through a unique primitive stage of their development of society. With the development and complication of life forms, mythology ceases to satisfy a person and a need arises for a new worldview. That worldview was religion.
Religious worldview- this is a set of ideas, beliefs, beliefs that are based on the supernatural. supernatural- this is something that does not obey the laws of the universe. The essence of the religious worldview is doubling the world: on the real world in which a person lives and the supernatural, which a person perceives on faith. The mode of existence of a religious worldview is faith. The outward manifestation of faith is cult.Some stand out features of the religious worldview :
1) it is a form of irrational exploration of the world, i.e. what lies beyond the mind (emotions, will, feelings);
2) it is directed to the inner world of a person, to his hopes and anxieties, to the search for a symbol of faith;
3) exists in an ordinary life-everyday form;
There is a religious worldview in the era of the division of labor. Over time, it becomes a worldview of the past, an expression of a person's powerlessness in front of natural and social elemental forces, an individual's separation from reality. It is replaced by a philosophical worldview.
Philosophical worldview This is the highest form of worldview. It begins there and then, where and when a person tries to know the world and find out his place in this world. The term "philosophy" in the 6th century. BC. introduced the famous mathematician and thinker Pythagoras : "Life is like games: Some come to compete, others to trade, and the happiest ones to watch." This term is of Greek origin and literally means "love of wisdom" or "maid of wisdom", "slave of sophia" , and in ancient Rus' it was simply called "love of wisdom" . The term philosophy in European culture was fixed by Plato, who believed that philosophers are people who discover the secrets of nature, human life, teach to act and live in harmony with nature and the requirements of life itself. Thus, philosophy is a special kind of knowledge, namely "sophianic" knowledge, which is understood as wisdom. A feature of the philosophical worldview there is that:
1) it is not inherent in the sensual-figurative, as in mythology and religion, but in the abstract-conceptual form of mastering the world;
2) it is a theoretical form of worldview;
3) religion and mythology coincide with the corresponding worldview, and philosophy is the core of the scientific worldview;
4) philosophy in understanding the world is based on scientific knowledge;
5) philosophy seeks to pose and solve the absolute problems of human existence;
6) philosophy explores the cognitive, value, socio-political, moral, aesthetic attitude of man to the world.
As you can see, a philosophical worldview is a theoretically formulated worldview and it tries to solve the main worldview problems through thinking.
Thus, the formation and development of a worldview is a historically successive process. All historical forms of worldview are dialectically identical: the religious worldview grows out of the mythological one and is formed along with it, since mythology acts as its basis; philosophical worldview historically arises on the basis of the mythological and religious and together with them, since it answers the same questions that are posed by myths and religion. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the spiritual life of various periods of human history is to a certain extent characterized by all types of worldview in the possession of one of them. At the same time, the direction of improving the worldview is unambiguous: from the mythological through the religious to the philosophical. In the culture of savagery (primitive society) there is still neither religious nor philosophical, but in the culture of barbarism - philosophical.
IDEAS AND EVOLUTION OF BUDDHISM
Buddhism: Active world religion, which arose in the VI - V centuries BC. in India. Anchored in the minds of the peoples of Asia and the Far East. Tradition associates the emergence of this religion with the prince Siddhartha Gautalla, called the Buddha (enlightened knowledge). However, in Buddhism there is no idea of God as the creator of the world. The essence of the doctrine: life and suffering are inseparable due to human passions and desires. Getting rid of suffering is connected with the renunciation of earthly passions and desires. After death, a new rebirth occurs, but in the form of another living being, whose life is determined not only by its own behavior, but also by the behavior of those in whom the soul was embodied earlier. A person needs to break out of the cycle of being through nirvana - the highest being, achieved by renouncing earthly passions, pleasures and desires. This is the way of salvation of man and mankind. The set of sacred books of the Buddhist religion is called Tititaka (three baskets). They were brought to a written structured form by the monks of Ceylon in 80 BC. Now there are 500,000,000 Buddhists in the world. In the Russian Federation, they prevail in Tuva, Buryatia, Kalmykia.
Philosophy of Buddhism. Man in Buddhism is neither someone's blessed invention, nor the master of his own destiny. In traditional Buddhism, a person is only an involuntary executor of the universal world law - Dharma. This law does not exist for man, but is realized and comprehended precisely in him. However, it is a person who, committing good and bad deeds, activates a certain ethical mechanism that underlies the universe. From the point of view of Buddhism, human life is not a priceless gift, as in Christianity, but only one of the moments in the chain of rebirths. Buddhists do not strive for eternal life after death, as they consider it a given, and not a higher goal. Eternal life, according to Buddhists, is the eternal hostage of death. In Buddhism, there is a so-called doctrine of dependent origination. Its essence is that the source of suffering for a person is the thirst for life, desires, attachment to life. Buddhists consider the world to be illusory, and, consequently, the pleasures that it promises are also illusory. Man is dependent on the law of cause and effect (karma). Living beings are doomed, according to the Buddhist point of view, to eternal rebirth, and the condition of any new existence is the sum of all previous ones, namely the sum of all good deeds, or accumulated merit, and bad deeds, accumulated anti-merits. Man, as a subject, is divided into thousands of fragments corresponding to past and future lives. Therefore, the whole chain of elements of “dependent origination” links not several lives in the “circle of births and deaths”, but instantaneous states of one – the only one, this life. Buddhism considers a person (as well as everything that exists in the universe and the universe itself) as a combination of various energy particles - dharmas. The very fact of a person's birth means for a Buddhist only inclusion in the endless process of being, where death is not the end of this process, but a transition to a different form of existence of consciousness - to an intermediate existence, which inevitably precedes a new birth. The acquisition of the new birth has a definite temporal disposition. In this case, a person is compared with the entire universe, which is also born, lives and dies. This process is cyclic and each time interval within this cycle has its own characteristics. In Buddhism, one of the most important places is occupied by the denial of the unity of the individual. Each personality is represented, as mentioned above, in the form of an accumulation of "changeable" forms. The Buddha said that personality consists of five elements: corporeality, sensation, desire, imagination and knowledge. Particular attention in Buddhism is given to the human soul, as an eternal element involved in the cycle of life (the wheel of samsara). The soul breaks up, according to the teachings of the Buddha, into separate elements (skandhas). In order for the same personality to be incarnated in the new birth, it is necessary that the Skandas unite in the same way as they were united in the previous incarnation. The cessation of the cycle of reincarnations, the exit from the wheel of samsara, the final and eternal peace - this is the main element in the interpretation of salvation in Buddhism. The soul, in the Buddhist view, is an individual consciousness that carries the entire spiritual world of a person, transforms in the process of personal rebirth and strives for the highest state - nirvana.
PHENOMENOLOGY. HERMENEUTICS
Hermeneutics is the science of understanding and interpreting texts. G.G. Gadamer created the theory of understanding. P. Riker analyzed the language in a wider context of social life and culture, uses the german to study literature.
The art and theory of interpretation, which aims to reveal the meaning of the text, based on its objective (gram meanings of words and their historically conditioned variations) and subjective (authors' intentions) grounds. It arises during the Hellenistic period in connection with the tasks of scientific research and the publication of classical texts and develops further within the framework of the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. In the 19th century, the development of so-called free grammar began, not limited by the subject, the boundaries of the meaning of the text. In Dilthey, G. turns into a specific method of the general sciences, designed to provide an understanding of general events based on the subjective intentions of historical figures. At the same time, understanding was opposed to an explanation in natural science, associated with abstraction and the establishment of a general law. In the 20th century, philology gradually takes shape in one of the main methodological procedures of phylum, first within the framework of existentialism, then actually in phylum philology. Thus, in Gadamer, philology acquires the functions of ontology, since “being, a cat can be understood, is language”, social philosophy, since understanding is a form of the essence of common life and "criticism of ideology." The result is the closure of phyla in the circle of language, which makes G. related to the neopositivist analysis of language. Within the framework of the Frankfurt School (J. Habermas), G., as a critique of ideology, should reveal in the analysis of language “a means of domination and social power”, which serves to justify the relations of organized violence. Habermas G. acts as one of the consolidation of various currents of modern bourgeois philosophy. G. procedures can. used in history, law and other sciences dealing with the analysis of objectified res. conscious human activity.
Dilthey - G. - is a link between phil and history sciences. Hermeneutics. Hermeneutics (I explain, interpret) - the art and theory of text interpretation. Hermeneutics of the 70s–90s. they develop “understanding” not as an applied task that arises in the process of interpreting texts, but as a fundamental characteristic of a person, as something that determines human being and thinking.
THE PROBLEM OF THE VALUE OF SCIENCE
Science yavl. main the form of people knowledge. Issue. social functions: 3 groups: 1) cultural and worldview, science as uncontroversial. production strength as a social strength (used in solving various problems that arose in the course of general development). In this historical order functions arose and expanded. First in the Renaissance-I - the struggle between the theol. and science for the right to determine. world carrier. Pr-with prev-I science in production. force - creation and strengthening of permanent channels for pract. use scient. knowledge appeared. applied research. In modern era of science ledge. tzh. in quality social strength. Sl., the variety of sciences about the island: 1) Ethnography studies the life and culture of the peoples of the globe, their origin., Settlement and cultural and historical ties. 2) Legal science considered. the essence and history of state-va and law 3) Linguistics studies the language, its culture, the laws of functioning and development. 4) Pedagogy has as its subject the issues of upbringing, education and training of the younger generations in accordance with the goals and objectives of society. 5) Literary criticism studies fiction, the specifics of literature. creativity, social significance artist. liters. 6) Economics studies economics. relations between people, the laws governing the production, distribution and exchange of material goods. For scientific knowledge har-but the presence of 2 levels: empiric. and theoretical For the empirical knowledge is characteristic of fact-fixing activity. Theor. knowledge is essential knowledge, carried out at the level of abstractions of high orders. Theory is a generalization of practice, experience or observation. Observation and experiment are the most important. research methods in scientific. knowledge. Empire. and theor. the levels are connected, presuppose each other, although historically the empirical preceded the theoretical. In the process of scientific knowledge, a thought experiment is used, when a scientist in his mind operates with images and concepts, mentally creates the necessary conditions. Theory is the highest, substantiated, logically consistent system of scientific knowledge, which gives a holistic view of the essential properties, patterns, etc. Theory is a developing system of true, practice-tested scientific knowledge. The core of a scientific theory is its constituent laws. The variety of forms of modern theoretical knowledge corresponds to the variety of types of theories, as well as the variety of their classifications.
Skepticism. the pessimistic position about the possibility of the world being knowable was formed back in antiquity - in its finished form by Pyrrho, who did not trust either reason or feelings. Later skepticism developed by E. Rotterdam, M. Montaigne and others. Skepticism does not in principle deny the possibility of knowing the world, but expresses doubts that this can be done with the help of the means at our disposal. Fundamentals of skeptical argumentation: feelings cannot be trusted, because different people can have different feelings; feelings cannot be trusted, because the sense organs are constantly deceiving us; reason cannot be trusted, because any proof relies on data that also needs to be proven, and so on ad infinitum. Consequently, nothing can be proved unless one accepts unproven axoms or dogmas on faith.
Anti-scientists see purely negative consequences of the scientific and technological revolution, their pessimistic moods intensify as all the hopes placed on science in solving economic and socio-political problems collapse.
Anti-scientists are sure that the invasion of science into all spheres of human life makes it soulless, devoid of a human face and romance. The spirit of technocracy denies the life world of authenticity, high feelings and beautiful relationships. A non-genuine world arises, which merges with the sphere of production and the need to constantly satisfy ever-increasing materialistic needs. The bright anti-scientist G. Marcuse expressed his indignation against Scientism in the concept of "one-dimensional man", in which he showed that the suppression of the natural, and then the individual in man, reduces the diversity of all its manifestations to only one technocratic parameter. Extreme anti-scientism leads to demands to limit and slow down the development of science. However, in this case, the urgent problem arises of meeting the needs of an ever-growing population in elementary and already familiar life goods, not to mention the fact that it is in scientific and theoretical activity that "projects" for the future development of mankind are laid.
Philosophy of Faith and Religion.
Religion is a form of social consciousness, the basis of which is belief in the supernatural. It includes religious ideas, religious feelings, religious actions.
"religion" - conscientiousness, piety, piety, worship, holiness and shrine, doubt, sin, guilt, superstition, conscientiousness, a sign.
In philosophy, religion is a worldview, attitude, as well as appropriate behavior and specific actions (cult), which are based on the belief in the existence of one or more gods, "sacred", i.e. some form of the supernatural.
religion is one of the forms of social consciousness, a reflection of reality in illusory-fantastic images, ideas, concepts. In essence - one of the types of idealistic worldview. The main sign is belief in the supernatural.
Theology defines religion as a relationship that connects a person with God. God and the Devil are the basic concepts of religion
Religious consciousness. It is characterized by sensual visibility, images created by the imagination, as well as a combination of content adequate to reality with illusions, faith, symbolism, and strong emotional richness.
Essential element religious consciousness - faith. This is a special psychological state of confidence in achieving the goal, the occurrence of an event, in the truth of the idea, provided there is a shortage of accurate information about the attainability of the goal and the final result.
Faith is the expectation that what is desired will come true. If an event has taken place or it has become clear that the expected cannot be realized, faith fades away.
Religious faith is faith:
into the objective existence of beings, properties, connections, transformations that are the product of the process;
in the possibility of communicating with seemingly objective beings, influencing them and receiving help from them;
in the actual occurrence of some mythological events, in their repetition, in the onset of such events and their involvement in them;
in the truth of the corresponding views, ideas, dogmas, texts, etc.;
Ordinary consciousness appears in the form of images, ideas, stereotypes, attitudes, mysteries, illusions, feelings, aspirations, direction of will, habits and traditions of people, which are a direct reflection of the conditions of people's existence.
a specially developed, systematized set of concepts, ideas, principles, arguments.
The main functions of religion.
compensates for the impotence of a person, the limitedness of his knowledge, the imperfection of the social, political system, etc., and also gives consolation, deliverance from disorder, injustice, resentment, political persecution. Religion offers a search for ways of salvation from the imperfection of earthly existence to deliverance from suffering,
gives a religious picture of the world.
seeks to explain the place of man in the universe, the problem of being and non-being.
Political - leaders of various communities and states use religion to explain their actions, unite or divide people according to religious affiliation for political purposes.
Communicative - communication between believers, "communication" with gods, angels (spirits), souls of the dead, saints, who act as ideal mediators in everyday life and in communication between people.
allows people to perceive themselves as a single religious community, held together by common values and goals
separates fellow believers from adherents of other religions.
Consciousness and the unconscious
The unconscious is a complex phenomenon, "its own other" consciousness (unconscious, subconscious, preconscious). Although man is primarily a conscious being, the unconscious occupies a large place in his spiritual life. For example, we are far from aware of all the consequences of our actions. Many human actions are mechanical, automated.
The variety of forms and manifestations of the unconscious is exceptionally great. Among them (besides those mentioned) are dreams, slips of the tongue, reservations, loss of completeness of orientation in time and space, some pathological phenomena (delusions, hallucinations, illusions), etc.
It would be wrong to equate the unconscious with the animal psyche. However, the concept of "human psyche" is wider than the concept of "consciousness". The lowest level of the human psyche is the unconscious. In fact, all human actions turn out to be a combination of the conscious and the unconscious.
The prehistory of the unconscious can be considered Plato's doctrine of anamnesis - the recollection by the soul of universal truths contemplated by it before it entered the body. In the future, the desire to comprehend the phenomenon of the unconscious went both along the lines of philosophy (Descartes, Leibniz, Schelling, Jena romantics, etc.), and along the lines of psychology - especially in connection with the study of pathopsychological processes and hypnotic phenomena (Bernheim, Charcot, Janet, etc. ).
However, the most widespread and influential concepts of the unconscious were created in the 20th century. Austrian psychologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961).
Briefly, the essence of Freud's concept is as follows. The ideas developed by him are based on the idea of the dominant role of the unconscious in human life, instincts - mainly of a sexual nature. It is Freud who owns the words that "I" "is not the master in own house and that the consciousness of man is compelled to be content with miserable information about what goes on unconsciously in his mental life.
Freud develops a structural concept of the psyche, which derives all mental dynamics from the interaction of three instances - It, I, Super-I. The unconscious id is, according to Freud, a "boiling cauldron of instincts." The task of the conscious I is to satisfy the impulses of the Id in such a way that it would not run counter to the requirements of social reality. The Superego, the representative of society, monitors compliance with these requirements. Let's take a closer look at this structure.
It (Id) is the most ancient psychic formation containing unrestrained primitive bodily instincts (sexual and aggressive drives). Its functions are entirely subordinated to the principle of pleasure. The simplest methods of revealing the content of the id, according to Freud, are the analysis of dreams and free associations.
The whole power of It is controlled by “libido” (lat. “attraction, desire”) - the mental energy of sexual desires, desires, i.e., sexual instinct. Freud described the ways of transforming the libido." An instinctive impulse can be: a) repressed undischarged into the unconscious; b) discharged in action, either through shame and morality, or through sublimation.
Sublimation (lat. “elevate, exalt”) is a mental process, which is the switching of the energy of the sexual instinct (libido) from immediate goals (lower) to non-sexual goals - socially and culturally acceptable (higher), morally approved: doing science, creating artistic works, self-development of a person, etc.
I (Ego) - that part of the personality that is aware of and reacts to the environment through its cognitive abilities. I am the mediator between the id and the superego. As the individual develops, differentiation of the Self and the development of the Super-I occur. Freud found that people differ significantly from each other in the forms and effectiveness of the activity of the I (in particular, they can be strong or weak).
The Super-I (Super-Ego) is the highest authority in the structure of mental life, which acts as an internal censor. The superego serves as a source of moral and religious feelings, a controlling and punishing agent, socioculturally conditioned
In other words, the Superego is a system of social filters. What is not passed through these filters is driven into the unconscious, from which you can get rid of the system of moral norms and social prohibitions, especially with the help of a sense of conscience.
The pathos of Freud's teachings is in the demand for the constant transformation of the Id into the I - a truly humanistic (albeit very difficult) and noble work, worthy of both each person and humanity as a whole.
K.-G. Jung, although he began working together with Freud, later diverged from him in his views. Their main differences concerned two fundamental points:
the role of the sexual principle in the mental life of the individual; understanding the nature of the unconscious.
Jung criticized Freud's pansexualism, proving, firstly, the inadmissibility of analyzing all manifestations of the unconscious only from the point of view of repressed sexuality and, secondly, the fundamental impossibility of explaining the origin of human culture and creativity only from the standpoint of libido.
Building his original concept of the unconscious, Jung proceeded from the fact that it:
1. is not at all a dark ocean of vices and carnal desires, forced out of consciousness in the process of the historical development of man;
2. a container of lost memories, as well as an apparatus
intuitive perception, far exceeding the possibilities of consciousness;
3. does not act to the detriment of a person, but on the contrary, performs a protective function, at the same time facilitating the transition of the individual to a certain, higher stage of development.
One of Jung's most cardinal ideas in psychology: in addition to the personal, individual unconscious, there is a deeper layer of the inner world - the collective unconscious, which has a universal superpersonal nature. Jung called the carriers of the collective unconscious archetypes (Greek “beginning, image”), which constitute its content (structure) and are inherent in all people from birth. Archetypes are diverse, the most important of them: Anima (feminine), Animus (masculine), Shadow, Person, Self, Hero, Savior, Monster, etc. Archetypes cannot be grasped by the mind, these are some mythical timeless and extraspatial formations common to all people. These are some “dormant thought forms” in which colossal energy is concentrated. Archetypes are "images-symbols", which are adequate expressions of universal human needs, instincts, aspirations and potencies, and, ultimately, precede human history. Archetypes are some pre-experimental structures that appear to a person through dreams, images, myths, fantasies, and imagination.
THE CONCEPT OF WORLD VIEW AND ITS HISTORICAL FORMS
Man is a rational social being. His work is worthwhile. And in order to act expediently in the complex real world, he must not only know a lot, but also be able to. To be able to choose goals, to be able to accept this or that
other solution. To do this, he needs, first of all, a deep and correct understanding of the world - a worldview.
A worldview is a system of views on the objective world and a person’s place in it, on a person’s attitude to the reality around him and to himself, as well as the beliefs, ideals that have developed on the basis of these views.
principles of cognition and activity, value orientations. And indeed, a person does not exist otherwise than in a certain relation to other people, a family, a collective, a nation, in a certain relation to nature, to the world in general. This attitude rests on the most essential question: "What is the world?".
Worldview is the foundation of human consciousness. The knowledge gained, the prevailing beliefs, thoughts, feelings, moods, combined in a worldview, represent a certain system of understanding by a person of the world and himself. IN real life worldview in the mind of a person is certain views, views on the world and one's place in it.
Mythological worldview - regardless of whether it refers to the distant past or today, we will call such a worldview that is not based on theoretical arguments and reasoning, or on an artistic and emotional experience of the world, or on public illusions born
inadequate perception by large groups of people (classes, nations) of social processes and their role in them. One feature of myth that unmistakably distinguishes it from science is that myth explains
“everything”, since for him there is no unknown and unknown. It is the earliest, and for modern consciousness - archaic, form of worldview.
Historically, the first form of worldview is mythology. It arises at the earliest stage of social development. Then mankind in the form of myths, that is, legends, legends, tried to answer such global questions as the origin and structure of the universe as a whole, the emergence of the most important natural phenomena, animals and people. A significant part of the mythology was cosmological myths dedicated to
device of nature. At the same time, much attention in the myths was paid to the various stages of people's lives, the secrets of birth and death, all kinds of trials that lie in wait for a person on his life path. A special place is occupied by myths about the achievements of people: making fire, the invention of crafts, the development of agriculture, the domestication of wild animals. myth is not the original form of knowledge, but a special kind of worldview, a specific figurative syncretic idea of natural phenomena and collective life. In myth, as the earliest form of human culture, the rudiments of knowledge, religious beliefs, moral, aesthetic and emotional assessment of the situation were combined. If in relation to myth we can talk about knowledge, then the word “knowledge” here has the meaning not of the traditional acquisition of knowledge, but of the worldview, sensual empathy (this is how we use this term in the statements “the heart makes itself felt”, “to know a woman”, etc.). d.). Myth usually combines two aspects - diachronic (a story about the past) and synchronic (an explanation of the present and future). Thus, with the help of myth, the past was connected with the future, and this ensured the spiritual connection of generations. The content of the myth seemed to the primitive man to be extremely real, deserving of absolute trust.
Mythology played a huge role in the lives of people in the early stages of their development. Myths, as noted earlier, affirmed the system of values accepted in a given society, supported and sanctioned certain norms of behavior. And in this sense they were important stabilizers of social life.
Close to the mythological, although different from it, was the religious worldview, which developed from the depths of the not yet dissected, not differentiated social consciousness. Like mythology, religion appeals to fantasy and feelings. However, unlike myth, religion does not "mix" the earthly and the sacred, but in the deepest and irreversible way separates them into two opposite poles. The creative almighty power is God
stands above nature and outside nature. The existence of God is experienced by man as a revelation. As a revelation, a person is given to know that his soul is immortal, eternal life and a meeting with God await him beyond the grave.
Religion, religious consciousness, religious attitude to the world did not remain vital. Throughout the history of mankind, they, like other cultural formations, developed, acquired diverse forms in the East and West, in different historical eras. But all of them were united by the fact that at the center of any religious worldview is the search for higher values, the true path of life, and the fact that both these values and the path of life leading to them are transferred to a transcendent, otherworldly area, not to the earthly, but to the “eternal " life. All deeds and deeds of a person and even his thoughts are evaluated, approved or condemned according to this highest, absolute criterion.
1. What type of worldview is the earliest?
a) religion;
b) philosophy;
c) mythology.
2. Worldview is:
a) a set of spiritual values;
b) a set of ideas that explain human behavior;
c) a system of ideas that determines human behavior.
3. Value is:
a) meaningful to a person;
b) satisfying a spiritual need;
c) a product of human activity.
4. Practice is:
b) activities to transform the world;
5. Essence is:
a) common to a class of things;
b) what makes an object such and not otherwise;
c) the idea of the subject.
6. The philosophical picture of the world is:
a) the dialectic of what is and what should be;
b) a picture of the world as a whole;
c) a picture of a person's existence in the world.
7. Philosophy is:
b) theoretical worldview;
c) the quintessence of the spiritual culture of the era.
8. Truth is:
a) the outcome of the convention;
b) the correspondence of the thought about the subject to the subject of thought;
c) the result of scientific knowledge.
9. Axiology is a doctrine:
a) about values; b) about morality; c) about a person.
10. Anthropocentrism is:
a) the principle of philosophizing, considering a person as the main object of the application of mystical forces;
b) a philosophical principle that considers man as the center of the universe and the goal of all events taking place in the world;
c) the ideological principle of explaining the world, the content of which is the understanding of man as an unconditional value.
