The main criterion of truth for dialectical materialism. Theories of truth (classical, coherent, pragmatic, conventional, dialectical-materialistic). What difficulties did the classical concept of truth face? Study of the history of pre
When fluid flows through a pipe, different layers have different velocities. The highest flow velocity is near the central layer. The layer adjacent to the pipe walls is at rest. Therefore, in the direction of the X axis, perpendicular to the direction of flow, a velocity gradient arises. The transfer of momentum from layer to layer is carried out by molecules, occasionally performing jump-like translational movements, while changing the equilibrium position around which they oscillate. At not very high temperatures, such jumps occur relatively rarely. The transfer of momentum causes a change in the speed of the layers, that is, a force begins to act, which, according to Newton's law, is equal to
where F is the force of internal friction (viscosity) between the layers of the liquid; - velocity gradient characterizing the rate of change of velocity along the x-axis, perpendicular to the velocity; S is the surface area separating two adjacent liquid layers; h is the coefficient of viscosity or the coefficient of internal friction.
weight force
Weight - the force of the body's impact on the support (or suspension or other type of attachment) that prevents falling, arising in the field of gravity. (In the case of several supports, weight is understood as the total force acting on all supports; however, for liquid and gaseous supports, in the case of immersion of the body in them, an exception is often made, i.e. then the forces of the body acting on them are excluded from the weight and included in the force Archimedes
The force that pushes a completely immersed body into a liquid or gas is equal to the weight of the liquid in the volume of this body. Force can be calculated using a mathematical expression:
F- force of Archimedes
p is the density of the liquid
g - free fall acceleration
V is the volume of the submerged body.
Therefore, the Archimedean force depends on the density of the liquid in which the body is immersed, and on the volume of this body. But it does not depend, for example, on the density of the substance of a body immersed in a liquid, since this quantity is not included in the resulting formula.
Let us now determine the weight of a body immersed in a liquid (or gas). Since the two forces acting on the body in this case are directed in opposite directions (gravity is down, and the Archimedean force is up), then the weight of the body in fluid P1 will be less than the weight of the body in vacuum by the Archimedean force.
P1 \u003d P - F P1 \u003d mg - mzhg \u003d g (m - mzh)
Thus, if a body is immersed in a liquid (or gas), then it loses as much in its weight as the liquid (or gas) displaced by it weighs.
Swimming bodies
- 1) If the force of gravity is greater than the Archimedean force, then the body will sink to the bottom, sink.
- 2) If the force of gravity is equal to the Archimedean force, then the body can be in equilibrium anywhere in the fluid, that is, the body floats inside the fluid.
- 3) If the force of gravity is less than the Archimedean force, then the body will rise from the liquid, float.
TRUE- Correspondence between human knowledge and its subject. Dialectical materialism understands truth as a historical process of reflection of the ever-developing reality by human consciousness.
Materialism and idealism differ not only in the solution of the question of what is original - spirit or nature - but also in the second side of the main philosophical question: can our ideas and concepts be true reflections of reality.
Dialectical materialism considers cognition as a historically developing process of ever deeper and more complete comprehension of the laws of development of nature and society, a more and more faithful reflection of reality. Agnosticism denies the possibility of knowing the objective world. Agnostics argue that we are always given only our subjective experiences and therefore it is impossible to determine whether or not the external world exists.
Subjective idealists identify objective reality with their consciousness.
Objective idealism considers the concept of reason to be true reality. From his point of view, it is not the concept that reflects reality, but "external reality corresponds to its concept."
The problem of truth in the history of philosophy. The problem of truth and its criterion has always been one of the most important questions of philosophy. The first Greek materialist philosophers did not yet realize the complexity of the problem of truth and believed that truth is given directly by perception and reflection. But even they already understood that the essence and appearance of things do not always coincide. So, Democritus (see) writes: “apparently sweet, bitter, warm, cold, colors; in reality, it is atoms and empty space.” Sophists led by Protagoras (see) put forward the doctrine of the subjectivity of truth. Therefore, they denied objective truth. According to Protagoras, "man is the measure of all things." Opponents of the extreme subjectivism of the sophists were Socrates And Plato (cm.). But, reflecting the interests of the aristocratic groups leaving the historical scene, Socrates and Plato took the path of an idealistic solution to the problem of knowledge. Man, according to Socrates, "must look into himself in order to know what truth is." According to the objective idealist Plato, the comprehension of truth is carried out only through thinking, purified from the "chaff" of sensory perception.
Truth itself is understood as an absolute, achievable due to the fact that thought easily comprehends what it itself has produced, that is, the eternal and unchanging world of ideas. The criterion of truth consists in the clarity and distinctness of our mental concepts.
Aristotle (see), fluctuating between materialism and idealism, understood the problem of the relation of knowledge to the external world more sharply than idealists. His natural philosophy is close to materialism, and in it he actually strives for the scientific knowledge of truth. Aristotle gave a broad critique of the Platonic doctrine of ideas, but in solving the problem of truth, he nevertheless turned out to be very close to Plato. The subject of true knowledge for Aristotle can only be the necessary and unchanging, and the truth is known through thinking.
Skepticism (Sextus Empiricus in the 2nd-3rd centuries AD), which developed under the conditions of the decay of Greco-Roman culture, undermined the authority of scientific thinking and thereby facilitated the class task of the growing church - strengthening the authority of faith and revelation.
Medieval philosophy taught that God is the only and eternal truth, for the comprehension of which one must delve into oneself, for true truth is given not in external experience, but through revelation. In the era of the beginning decline of feudalism, in the 13th century, the doctrine of dual truth appeared, recognizing the independence of scientific and philosophical truth from religious. Some position may be true from the point of view of philosophy and false from the point of view of religion, theology, and vice versa. This teaching expressed the desire to escape from the fetters of the boundless authority of priesthood, but did not yet dare to openly refute religious truths.
The materialism of modern times, in its struggle with scholasticism, advances natural science as the only true science. bacon (see) recognizes feelings, not revelation, as an infallible source of knowledge. Bacon considers experience to be the only correct way to reveal the truth, that is, the real laws of nature. Bacon points out that in order to discover the truth, people must overcome a lot of prejudices and delusions. But Bacon understands truth metaphysically, only as absolute truth. Locke (see), giving a deep critique of the theory of innate ideas and substantiating the experimental origin of human knowledge, but stands on a dualistic position in solving the problem of cognition. The knowledge of truth occurs, according to Locke, both through the coordination of our sensory experiences or ideas, and as a result of the internal activity of the soul or reflection. From here, Locke came to the recognition of divine revelation through the revelation of a deity. Locke's contradictions and inconsistencies cleared the way for subjective idealism Berkeley (see) and skepticism Yuma (cm.).
Hume believes that "only perceptions are given to consciousness and nothing can be known to it from experience regarding the connection of these perceptions with external objects." Correspondence between the course of phenomena in nature and the sequence of our ideas is possible only through habit, which governs all our knowledge and all our actions. Thus, there can be no question of any objective, true scientific knowledge. Truth, according to Hume, is incomprehensible either rationalistically or sensationally.
The problem of truth is the central core of philosophy Kant (cm.). Kant's philosophy set itself the task of investigating to what extent thinking is capable of bringing us the knowledge of truth in general. Considering sensory knowledge unreliable, Kant argues that only a priori knowledge, independent of experience, is true. Mathematics is for Kant a model of unconditionally reliable knowledge, acquired independently of any experience.
Recognizing existence objective reality"things in themselves", Kant at the same time considers it unknowable. Reason is the legislator only in the field of phenomena, and its laws have nothing to do with "things in themselves." For Kant, objective knowledge is not knowledge that corresponds to an object, but generally valid knowledge that becomes objective due to the unchanging unity (apperception) of normal human consciousness. The criterion of truth for Kant lies "in the universal and necessary rules of reason", and "that which contradicts them is a lie, since reason contradicts general rules thinking, i.e., to oneself.” Having declared the world of things outside of us, although existing, but forever fundamentally unknowable, Kant, in essence, did not leave the limits of subjectivism in solving the problem of truth. Knowledge does not go beyond phenomena and depends entirely on the cognizing subject.
Lenin says: “The finite, transient, relative, conditional character human knowledge(its categories, causality, etc., etc.) Kant took for subjectivism, and not for the dialectic of the idea (= nature itself), tearing cognition from the object” (“Philosophical Notebooks”, p. 198). Kant himself admits that he "limited the field of knowledge in order to make room for faith."
Against extreme subjectivism critical philosophy Kant came up with Hegel's system of absolute objective idealism. Hegel made it his task not to discard the content of the concrete real world, like Kant, but to absorb this content into your system, not to take the outside world beyond the limits of cognition, but to make it an object of cognition.
He subjected Kant's analysis of the faculty of cognition before and independently of the process of cognition to a devastating critique; he compared this setup to trying to learn how to swim without entering the water. The cognitive abilities of man are revealed in the entire history of knowledge, and "the real form of truth can only be its scientific system." Unlike all previous metaphysical philosophy, which understood truth as something complete, given once and for all, as a given, ready-made, minted coin, Hegel for the first time considers truth as a process. In The Phenomenology of the Spirit, he considers the history of knowledge, developing and rising from the lower levels (sensory certainty) to the highest philosophy of absolute idealism. Hegel is coming close (but only coming) to the understanding that the path to truth lies through the practical, expedient activity of man. For the first time, Hegel considers all past philosophical thought not as a "gallery of delusions", but as successive steps in the cognition of truth. Hegel writes: “Only the unity of opposites is truth. In every judgment there is truth and falsehood.
Engels evaluates the Hegelian doctrine of truth in the following way: “The truth that philosophy was supposed to know, seemed to Hegel no longer in the form of a collection of ready-made dogmatic propositions that can only be memorized once they are discovered; for him, the truth consisted in the very process of cognition, in the long historical development of science, rising from the lower levels of knowledge to the highest, but never reaching a point from which it, having found the so-called absolute truth, could no longer go further ”( Marx and Engels, Soch., vol. XIV, p. 637).
But Hegel was an idealist and considered objective thought to be the essence of things. Thinking, in his opinion, finds in the object the content that it itself produced and cognized. Therefore, the problem of truth is resolved by Hegel very simply, as a matter of course: our mind cognizes only the rational content of nature and through it comes to absolute knowledge. Marx says that truth for Hegel is " machine which proves itself” (Marx and Engels, Soch., vol. III, p. 102). And although Hegel was the first to consider truth as a process, however, idealism led him to the recognition that the process can be completed and absolute truth can be known. Hegel himself declared that absolute truth is given in his - Hegel's - philosophy. The criterion of truth for Hegel is the activity of reason. Thinking itself gives approval and recognizes the object as corresponding to it.
Solution of the problem of truth by dialectical materialism. Proceeding from the recognition of the objective reality of the world outside of us and its reflection in our consciousness, dialectical materialism recognizes objective truth, i.e., the presence in human ideas and concepts of such content, “which does not depend on the subject, does not depend either on the person or on humanity” (Lenin, Soch., vol. XIII, p. 100). Lenin exposes the reactionary, anti-scientific character of all theories that deny objective truth. Machism, which replaces the concept of "objective" with the concept of "generally valid", erases the distinction between science and priesthood, for religion is still "generally valid" to a greater extent than science. For the materialist, however, only science is capable of giving objective truth. Lenin writes that "to every scientific ideology (as distinct from, for example, religious) there corresponds objective truth, absolute nature" (Lenin, Soch., vol. XIII, p. 111).
In understanding objective and absolute truth, dialectical materialism fundamentally diverges from mechanical materialism. Mechanical, metaphysical materialism also recognizes the existence of objective truth, which is a reflection in our consciousness of the external world. But he does not understand the historical character of truth. For a metaphysical materialist, this reflection can be either absolutely correct or absolutely erroneous, false. Objective truth, therefore, can be known in its entirety and without remainder. Relative and absolute truth are thus separated from each other.
Dialectical materialism proceeds from the fact that the reflection of the material world in our minds is relative, conditional, historically limited. But dialectical materialism does not reduce this relativity of human cognition to subjectivism and relativism. Lenin emphasizes that the materialistic dialectic of Marx and Engels includes relativism, but is not reduced to it. It recognizes the relativity of all our knowledge, not in the sense of denying objective truth, but in the sense of the historical conventionality of the limits of our knowledge's approach to this truth. Lenin wrote that human concepts are subjective in their abstractness, isolation, but objective in "the whole, in the process, as a result, in the trend, in the source."
Engels waged a merciless struggle against the recognition of metaphysical eternal truths [ Dühring (see) etc.]. But he by no means denied absolute truth. Engels clearly raised the question of whether the products of human knowledge can have sovereign significance and claim to be unconditionally true, and gave an equally clear answer to it. “Human thinking,” he writes, “exists only as the individual thinking of many billions of past, present and future people ... the sovereignty of thinking is exercised in a number of extremely non-sovereign thinking people... In this sense, human thinking is as sovereign as it is non-sovereign ... It is sovereign and unlimited in its inclinations, in its purpose, in its capabilities, in its historical ultimate goal; but it is non-sovereign and limited in terms of individual realization, in terms of reality given at one time or another” (Marx and Engels, Soch., vol. XIV, pp. 86 and 87).
The same dialectical understanding of the problem of truth is developed by Lenin. "For dialectical materialism, - he says, - there is no intransitive line between relative and absolute truth ... historically conditional limits approximation of our knowledge to objective, absolute truth, but undoubtedly the existence of this truth is certain that we are approaching it. The contours of the picture are historically conventional, but what is certain is that this picture depicts an objectively existing model” (Lenin, Soch., vol. XIII, p. 111). Thus, the absoluteness of objective truth is not at all expressed in the fact that truth reaches the final pinnacle of cognition and final fullness, beyond which nothing remains unseen. Truth is absolute precisely because it has no limit (constantly developing, moving from one stage of development of knowledge to a new, higher one). These stages of development of absolute truth are relative truths. Our knowledge is only approximately correct, because the further development of science will show their limitations, the need to establish new laws in place of those previously formulated. But any relative truth, although incomplete, reflects objective reality. And in this sense, every relative truth contains absolute truth. This is what makes it possible to be guided by this truth in practice, although it is not complete enough.
The solution of the problem of truth by dialectical materialism has nothing in common with the relativistic and agnostic attitude in these matters. Relativism (see) interprets the relativity of truth subjectively, in the spirit of agnosticism. According to him, we cannot know the truth in its objective meaning. Thus, the Machists, denying in general the possibility of going beyond the limits of our sensations and cognizing the objective world, logically come to the denial of objective and absolute truth. All truth, from their point of view, is subjective and relative. There is no need to talk about the reflection of objective reality in truth, because no objective reality exists, or at least we cannot cognize it. Therefore, all truths are subjective and equal. In the realm of politics, relativism is a methodology of unprincipled opportunism and double dealing.
Agnosticism fundamentally denies the possibility of knowing objective truth, puts a limit to human knowledge, limiting it to the study of only the sphere of one's own sensations and denying the possibility of going beyond them.
Dialectical materialism, on the other hand, although it affirms the relativity of any concrete truth, although it denies the possibility of exhausting the knowledge of matter, does not put a limit on human knowledge, but, on the contrary, substantiates and proves its limitless possibilities.
N. Ovander .
The specificity of truth. Truth must be distinguished from formal correctness. Lenin pointed out that such a reflection is possible, which, while grasping some aspects of what is being displayed, is still not a true reflection, is not the truth. Lenin's words "formally correct, but in essence a mockery" are well-known. Truth, as opposed to formal correctness, means revealing the entire depth of reality. True knowledge is ensured only when the phenomenon under study is taken in all its concrete diversity, in all its "connections and mediations". On this basis, Lenin defines the essence of dialectical cognition as the unfolding of the totality of the moments of reality. Only such concrete cognition is opposed to formally correct cognition, which arbitrarily selects certain facts or examples to defend any position and thus directly distorts reality.
Of course, we can never exhaust the totality of facts, but, as Lenin says, "the demand for comprehensiveness warns us against mistakes and deadness." Therefore, the truth is always a concrete truth, reflecting the phenomenon in its specificity, due to the given specific conditions of place and time.
Lenin formulated the demand for concrete thinking as one of the basic requirements of dialectical materialism and severely criticized R. Luxemburg, Plekhanov, Kautsky and others for the abstract-formal approach to resolving the most important questions of the revolutionary struggle of the proletariat.
In natural science, as in the social sciences, truth is concrete. Attempts to interpret the simplest statements like “2 × 2 = 4” as “eternal” truths reveal only the vulgarity of those who claim this, because they present as something developing science something that is actually very meager and flat in content. Nature itself, developing, changes, and this cannot but be reflected in the actual data of natural science and in the laws formulated by it.
Practice as a criterion of truth. philosophical thought before Marx, it struggled in vain to solve the problem of truth, among other things, because it considered knowledge outside of practice, outside the activity of historical man, pursuing his own goals and actively influencing the surrounding nature to change it in his own interests. Materialist dialectic puts practice, understood primarily in its socio-historical content, as the basis of his theory of knowledge. Practice is both the source of knowledge and the criterion of its truth. If the actions performed on the basis of a particular theory are successful, then the objective correctness of the reflection of reality in this theory is confirmed. Practice checks the depth and fidelity of the reflection of reality in knowledge.
In bourgeois philosophy there are also occasional references to the role of practice as a criterion of truth. But the bourgeoisie's understanding of practice is fundamentally different from the Marxist-Leninist one. Practice is understood, firstly, as subjective, and not social and not historical, and secondly, as narrow vulgar practicality and businesslikeness. For example, bourgeois pragmatism (see) identifies truth with practice, understood as the activity of an individual. In the activity of a person, pragmatists consider the satisfaction of his aesthetic, physical, and other needs to be the main one. True, from their point of view, is the judgment that "is beneficial to me", which "works for us." Based on this subjective-idealistic interpretation of practice, pragmatists also consider religious experiences to be "beneficial" and, therefore, true. Most of the bourgeois philosophical currents are looking for a criterion of truth in the very process of thinking. For Kant, the criterion of truth is the universality and necessity of judgments, for Bogdanov - the universal validity of truth, for modern supporters of formal mathematical logic (Ressel and others) - the logical deduction of the concepts of one from the other on the basis of mathematical laws.
Marxism-Leninism considers socio-historical practice as something objective, independent of the consciousness of an individual, although it fully recognizes the active role of the will and consciousness of individuals and groups. In the socio-historical practice of classes, it is possible to check how much the consciousness of individual people or a whole class reflects reality, the knowledge of which class is capable of reflecting with the greatest completeness and correctness of reflection for a given level of development of society, and the knowledge of which class is incapable of this. Lenin emphasizes the importance of practice in the process of cognition, as a link leading from the subjective idea to objective truth, which is the transition of the first to the second, and depicts the development of truth in the process historical development nature and society as follows: “Life gives birth to the brain. Nature is reflected in the human brain. By checking and applying in his practice and technique the correctness of these reflections (about practice), a person comes to objective truth.
Party truth. Since the knowledge of truth is connected with social, industrial practice, truth is class and party. Bourgeois philosophy interprets partisanship as a narrow, limited point of view, incapable of rising above group interests to universal human truth. Objective truth is non-partisan and apolitical. All the leaders of the Second International adhere to this same point of view, and they also deny the class and partisan nature of truth.
Dialectical materialism shows that only the class party point of view of the proletariat can consistently and correctly reflect objective truth, for only the proletariat, which owns the future, is interested in the most correct and profound study of the laws governing the objective development of nature and society. The bourgeoisie, in the period of the general crisis of capitalism, becomes interested in distorting the actual relations between classes, which leads it to the inability to correctly reflect the entire objective reality. Bourgeois science was capable of reflecting objective truth at a time when the bourgeoisie was a revolutionary and progressive class, although even then it was unable to give such a deep and correct reflection of the truth as proletarian science can give. The contemporary bourgeoisie openly renounces most of the scientific tendencies contained (albeit often in a mystified form) in classical bourgeois philosophy and science, and takes the path of open support for clergy. This does not mean that bourgeois science is no longer able to produce this or that discovery, invention, to correctly determine this or that factual data. But in explaining these facts, in philosophical basis, which is subsumed under this explanation, i.e., precisely in what determines the true scientific nature of research, the bourgeoisie reveals its impotence and hostility to objective truth.
Lit.: Marx K., Poverty of Philosophy, in the book: Marx and Engels, Soch., vol. V, M.-L., 1929; Marx on Feuerbach, ibid., vol. IV, M., 1933; Engels F., "Anti-Dühring", "Dialectics of Nature", ibid., volume XIV, M.-L., 1931; V. I. Lenin, Works, 3rd ed., vol. XIII (“Materialism and Empirio-Criticism”), vol. III (“The Development of Capitalism in Russia”, preface to the second edition), vol. XXVI (“On trade unions, on Current Situation and Trotsky’s Mistakes”, “Once Again About the Trade Unions, the Current Situation and the Mistakes of Trotsky and Bukharin”), vol. XVII (“On the Right of Nations to Self-Determination”); his own, Philosophical Notebooks, [L.], 1934; Stalin, I., Questions of Leninism, 10th ed., [M.], 1935.
G. Tatulov
TSB 1st ed., 1935, v. 29, room 637-644
270. Conventionalism understands truth as...
The agreement of scientists to choose the most expedient and easy-to-use scientific theory
2) correspondence of knowledge to objective reality
3) non-contradiction, self-consistency knowledge
4) knowledge useful to a person
271. Adherents consider everything that is useful to be true
pragmatism
2) Marxism
3) neo-Thomism existentialism
4) pragmatism considers the truth ...
272. Obvious and reliable facts correspondence of knowledge about an object to the object itself
1) the general validity of collective representations
Knowledge leading to successful action
273. According to the classical position, truth is a theoretical construct that makes it possible to achieve success in a given situation.
1) what is recognized as such by the majority
Compliance of knowledge with objective reality
274. Ultimate knowledge of certain aspects of reality is
2) hypothesis
3) relative truth
absolute truth
275. The main criterion of truth for dialectical materialism is...
1) sensory experiences
2) logical constructions
Practice
4) self-evidence and reliability
276. An exaggeration of the significance of absolute truth is
1) Gnosticism
2) agnosticism
Dogmatism
4) skepticism
277. The modern dialectical materialist interpretation of truth assumes that
there is no absolute truth
Truth is a process
2) Truth is always subjective,
Truth is inextricably linked with object-sensory activity, practice
4) in knowledge one should strive for eternal and absolute truth.
278. Deliberate distortion by the subject of reality is interpreted as..
Lie.
2) explanation.
3) delusion.
4) fantasy.
279. Knowledge not currently confirmed by practice, or insufficiently substantiated logically, is called ...
1) delusion
2) Reliable
3) erroneous
Hypothetical
280. It does not apply to the forms of practice as a criterion of truth...
1) ideology
2) Public production
3) Socio-political activity
4) scientific and experimental activity
281. The opposite of truth is....
2) doubt
Delusion
282. Relative and absolute truths are...
1) only different levels, or forms, truths are identical concepts
2) forms of subjective truth
mutually exclusive moments of the process of cognition
283. Every relative truth...
Contains a fraction of the absolute
2) is an obstacle to absolute truth
3) identical to absolute truth
4) has nothing to do with the absolute
284. Both relative and absolute truth.
A complete, comprehensive understanding of the subject
2) are objective
3) may be revised over time
4) are subjective
285. The dependence of knowledge on conditions, place and time is expressed in the concept ...
1) absoluteness "Falsehood"
2) concreteness»abstractness»
286. Arguing that truth is the revelation of the essential forces of matter itself, its self-movement, the philosopher takes the position...
1) Objective idealism
2) materialism
3) Subjective idealism
4) pragmatism
287. The following judgments do not agree with the point of view of dialectical materialism in the definition of truth
Truth is knowledge confirmed by myths
2) truth is such knowledge, guided by which we create works of art
Truth is that which simply and economically describes the flow of human experience.
4) truth is such knowledge, guided by which we achieve the goal.
288. From a dialectical point of view
1) truth is the unity of the objective and the subjective
2) There are universal absolute truths
3) truth is always relative
Truth is unity
5) relative and absolute
6) truth is absolute and error is relative
289. The objective reasons for the emergence of errors in science include
1) inability to reach the truth
2) Mistakes of individual scientists
3) the multidimensionality of the object of knowledge
The process of searching for truth associated with the nomination
Assumptions and hypotheses
6) imperfection of methods of cognition
Features of scientific knowledge
290. Does not apply to the functions of science
1) aesthetic
2) Explanatory
3) cognitive
4) Predictive
291. The information disseminated by anthropology, parapsychology, ufology refers to the so-called knowledge.
1) scientific
2) quasi-scientific
3) parascientific
4) pre-scientific
Pseudo-scientific knowledge is called in philosophy
1) proto-knowledge, which in the future will become a science, knowledge that speculates on the totality of popular theories
Knowledge obtained as a result of a departure from the accepted norms of the cognitive process
3) knowledge that does not meet the criteria of scientific character, but has found the support of the authorities
292. Art in any kind of production was called in antiquity
1) thinking
technique
3) Religion Experience
293. To the essence scientific revolution not applicable..
1) creation of new research programs
2) building new theoretical concepts
Study of the history of the subject
294. As the highest cultural value considers scientific knowledge...
1) voluntarism
scientism
3) nihilism
4) antiscientism
295. Scientific and technological progress contributes to the growth of ethical nihilism, he believes. .
1) dogmatism
2) liberalism
antiscietism
4) scientism
296. Science acts as
1) forms of culture that can explain anything
Spiritual and practical activity aimed at understanding the essence of the laws of the objective world
3) a set of views on the world and a person's place in the world
The body of knowledge accumulated by man
297. Distinguishing features scientific knowledge consider: systematization, evidence, and also ..,
Verifiability
2) eternity
3) truth
4) personal character
298. Formal distinction scientific activity from unscientific is the presence of the following components:
1) the seriousness of the intention of the scientist
2) research institute
3) accurate recording of facts
Dialectical materialism Alexandrov Georgy Fedorovich
4. PRACTICE IS THE CRITERION OF TRUTH
4. PRACTICE IS THE CRITERION OF TRUTH
The correctness of the reflection of the external world in the human brain is verified by practice. Practice confirms the data of the senses and thinking, transmitted by people to each other with the help of language.
MARXIST UNDERSTANDING OF PRACTICE. Marxist philosophical materialism understands by practice primarily the social production activity of people. An experiment in the laboratory of a scientist or in a factory laboratory, carried out with the help of scientific equipment, which is an indicator and expression of the success of production and the sciences, is also a part of social production practice. The practice that serves as a criterion of truth also includes the practice of astronomical observations, geographical discoveries, etc.
It is impossible to reduce practice only to the relation of people to nature. The material, i.e., the production relations of society that develop independently of the will of people, are an important aspect of social production activity. Therefore, in the content of practice, Marxism-Leninism also includes the experience of the class struggle, the practice of the struggle for socialism and communism,
If we act on the basis of a correct idea of objects, the laws of the objective world, then we will achieve the predetermined results. Thus, the success of people's practical activities is a test of the theoretical concepts used in it. Errors and failures in practical activity testify to the incompleteness of our knowledge and thus impel us to overcome these errors, i.e., to a further, ever deeper knowledge of the world and its laws.
The practical activity of people is, in the final analysis, the decisive way of testing the reliability of our knowledge. Practice checks the correctness of the reflection of natural phenomena, the correctness of knowledge of the essence of these phenomena. Practice tests the correctness of our conclusions about these phenomena and about the laws that govern them. Practice is the basis and criterion of the truth of our knowledge about objective reality.
The most important condition for the development of science is the ability of scientists to listen sensitively to the voice of life and practice.
Outside of practice, in its Marxist understanding, it is impossible to resolve the question of the correctness or incorrectness of human ideas about the external world. Moreover, an attempt to separate the question of the knowability of the world from practice leads inevitably to scholasticism.
"The question," Marx wrote, "does human thinking have objective truth, is not at all a question of theory, but a practical question. In practice, a person must prove the truth, that is, the reality and power, the this-worldliness of his thinking."
The introduction by Marxist philosophical materialism of social production practice into the theory of knowledge of dialectical materialism dealt a mortal blow to agnosticism, philosophical idealism was exposed in the area where he considered himself invulnerable.
Engels pointed out that the most decisive refutation of agnosticism is practice, namely experiment and industry. “If we can prove the correctness of our understanding of a given natural phenomenon by the fact that we ourselves produce it, call it from its conditions, make it also serve our purposes, then Kant’s elusive “thing in itself” comes to an end.
The history of science and technology confirms the position of Marxist materialism about the cognizability of the world, about the role of practice as a criterion of truth.
History of natural science and modern science irrefutably testify that with each scientific discovery a person more deeply and fully cognizes the objective material world and the laws of its development and confirms the correctness of his knowledge by practice. Learning the objective laws of nature and society, people use them to achieve their practical goals, master the elemental forces of nature and create in the production process such objects and phenomena that nature on Earth would not create without them (for example, chemical elements heavier than uranium, plastics, new varieties plants and breeds of animals, etc. Creation in the laboratory and in industry of objects and phenomena that are created by nature without man, as well as the creation according to pre-planned plans, based on the knowledge of the laws of nature, of such objects and phenomena that have not been encountered by man before and the conditions of the Earth, are irrefutable proof of the cognizability of the world and its objective laws.
Dialectical materialism has completely exposed the agnostic assertions about the "unknowability" of the laws of the development of society. And here the decisive criterion of truth is practice.
The proletariat is a revolutionary class whose practical activity and vital interests require the study of the objective laws of development and change. public life. The teachers and leaders of the working class, Marx and Engels, created the exact science of society—historical materialism, Marxist political economy, and the theory of scientific communism.
Marx and Engels, on the basis of their knowledge of the objective economic laws of the capitalist mode of production, were for the first time able to scientifically foresee the inevitability of the death of capitalism, the inevitability of the victory of the proletariat, the creator and builder of communism. The science of society was creatively developed further in the decisions of the congresses of the CPSU and the Central Committee of the Communist Party, in the works of Lenin, his successor I.V. Stalin, and their outstanding students and associates. The practice of the class struggle of the proletariat, the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution and the victorious building of communism in the USSR irrefutably prove the truth and strength of the Marxist-Leninist theory. The world-historic successes of socialist construction in the USSR, the successes of the people's democracies, the practice of the struggle of all progressive forces led by the communist parties against the camp of imperialism are proof of the great mobilizing, organizing and transforming power of the ideas of Marxism-Leninism, accurately reflecting the actual development of the world, arming practical activity leading forces of society.
CRITIQUE OF PRAGMATISM. Practice decisively refutes idealism and agnosticism in the theory of knowledge. No wonder, therefore, the desperate attempts of modern philosophers of the imperialist bourgeoisie to falsify the concept of practice in order to save idealism. One such attempt is the “school” of so-called pragmatism, which is still fashionable in American bourgeois philosophy, and was exposed by V. I. Lenin in his book Materialism and Empirio-Criticism.
Pragmatists (James, Dewey, and others) argue that practice is also allegedly the basis of their philosophy. However, by practice, pragmatists understand only what is useful, profitable. They declare utility to be the sole criterion of truth. Since, according to pragmatists, each person pursues his own benefit, there are as many truths as there are people. In fact, pragmatists declare "true" only that which is useful to capital and brings it success and profit. From the point of view of the pragmatists, for example, religion is "truth" because it is "useful" to the exploiting classes; idealism is "true" on the same grounds. Pragmatists declare any lie "truth" if this lie is beneficial to the imperialist bourgeoisie. The pragmatists act as the philosophical squires of the modern militant imperialist reaction in the USA. They reject the existence of the external material world and its objective laws, reject the understanding of practice as a criterion of objective truth, act as subjectivists.
About pragmatists, V.I. Lenin wrote: "Pragmatism" (from the Greek pragma - deed, action; philosophy of action) is almost the "latest fashion" of the most recent American philosophy. Philosophical journals speak about pragmatism almost most of all. metaphysics and materialism and idealism, extols experience and only experience, recognizes practice as the only criterion ... and ... safely deduces from all this God and practical purposes, only for practice ... ".
Marxist philosophical materialism also exposes other idealist attempts to distort the question of practice and its role in cognition.
Thus, for example, the Machist A. Bogdanov idealistically understood practice as "collective experience," that is, sensations of many faces, and argued that human practice, understood in this way, is the only object of knowledge. Bogdanov denied matter as an object of knowledge.
In contrast, Marxist philosophical materialism claims that the object of scientific knowledge is the material world that exists outside and independently of consciousness and existed even when there was no society and social production activity of people. Marxist philosophical materialism organically connects the question of the role of practice in the theory of knowledge with the materialist solution of the fundamental question of philosophy, with the recognition of the existence of matter outside consciousness, with the principle of the knowability of the objective world.
CRITIQUE OF THE MAHIST INTERPRETATION OF THE CONCEPT "EXPERIENCE". One of the characteristic methods of idealists in their struggle against science is their distorted interpretation of the concept of "experience", which is widely used by reactionary philosophy to cover up the anti-scientific content of their theories.
The Machists, juggling with the concept of "experience", rejected the objective content of experience, considered "experience" idealistically, only as a sensation, an experience of a person. Plekhanov fell for the Machist bait, agreeing with one of the Machist interpretations of the concept of "experience."
In his work Materialism and Empirio-Criticism, Lenin showed that various interpretations of the concept of "experience", such as its interpretation as a "means of knowledge" or "object of knowledge", in themselves still do not reveal the main epistemological differences between materialism and idealism. The crux of the matter is to reveal the objective content in experience: an objective reality that exists outside and independently of consciousness.
In contrast to Machism, Marxist philosophical materialism defines experience as part of the social production activity of people, aimed at revealing the objective laws of the material world, at its transformation. Even in the simplest scientific experiment, an active attitude towards nature plays an important role. Science reproduces the phenomena of nature in experience in order to reveal its laws, in order to master its secrets.
Thus, Marxism-Leninism exposes all idealistic distortions in the understanding of practice and for the first time introduces the practical activity of people, their social production activity, into the theory of knowledge.
The introduction of practice into the theory of knowledge characterizes Marxism as an active worldview in contrast to the contemplative character of the old, pre-Marxian materialism.
PRACTICE IS THE BASIS FOR THE UNITY OF LIVE CONTROL AND ABSTRACT THINKING. To eliminate errors in thinking and to use the conclusions of theory in life, it is necessary to go from practice to thinking and from thinking to practice, checking with it the correctness of the results of abstract thinking. Consequently, practice is not only the basis of cognition and the criterion of truth, but also the goal of cognition of the objective world. Practice underlies all stages of cognition of objective reality. The living contemplation of nature by man, as well as the abstract thinking of people, could historically arise and develop only in the process of man's practical influence on nature and society, in the course of people's social and production activities.
Genuinely scientific knowledge world aims at the active transformation of nature, the communist transformation of society, the implementation of the results of theory in life.
Practice confirms the unity of living contemplation and abstract thinking. Any attempt to reduce the process of cognition to only one of these moments of cognition contradicts real facts reality, leads to a distortion of the Marxist-Leninist theory of reflection. The limitation of the process of cognition of the external world to only one sensory data, the underestimation of the role of abstract thinking leads to a blind accumulation of facts without revealing their internal connection. In turn, limiting the knowledge of nature only to abstract thinking, ignoring these sense organs and practice directly leads to scholasticism. Practice, considered out of touch with theory, leads to delusion, to groping, blindly. Analysis of any kind human activity confirms the correctness of this conclusion.
As a result of the development of industry and science, all modern scientific and technical equipment comes to the aid of the sense organs and thinking of man and the course of his knowledge of the outside world. To manufacture modern telescopes, light and electron microscopes, seismographs, radio transmitters, televisions, a condensation chamber, a betatron, a cyclotron, a radar, an electrical integrator, and other scientific and industrial equipment, a high level of development of production, a huge reserve of observations, and a high level of development of scientific thinking are needed.
Let us give an example of such a unity of all forms of reflection of the external world.
The invention and improvement of the light microscope was at one time a great achievement of science and technology. The man began to see the smallest objects inaccessible to the naked eye. However, a light microscope does not allow us to distinguish between objects smaller than the wavelength of light.
Bourgeois idealist philosophers hastened to declare here too that the limit of man's knowledge of microprocesses has allegedly come. However, in the 1920s wave properties of electrons were discovered. It turned out that under certain conditions it is possible to obtain an electron wave of such a length that particles become visible that could not be seen with an optical microscope.
Using this discovery, scientists were able to build special electron microscopes. The electron microscope is many times stronger than the most powerful light microscope. Using an electron microscope, one can, for example, see the influenza virus, the size of which is on the order of several molecules. And this is not the limit of the possibilities of improving modern microscopy.
Despite the powerful clouds of dark interstellar matter, Soviet astrophysicists were able to photograph using infrared rays the center of the Milky Way (our Galaxy), which was considered fundamentally inaccessible for scientific research. They were able to detect heavy carbon in the composition of giant stars, were able to show that the stars in the Milky Way did not appear simultaneously, as bourgeois astrophysicists wrote about it, that the process of star formation is still going on in it.
We can today see traces of such phenomena that cannot be seen directly even with the most powerful electron microscope. In the condensation chamber, one can observe the movement of an individual electron, photograph the flight of a positron, etc. Scientists have designed instruments that make it possible to observe phenomena and processes occurring in one millionth or even less than a fraction of a second.
Convincing examples of the transformation of "things in themselves" into "things for us" are given by the practice of using the achievements of modern synthetic chemistry in industry.
People did not know how to produce artificial rubber before. The structure of the natural rubber molecule was not well known to chemists. In this respect, rubber remained for science a "thing in itself." The Communist Party set before Soviet chemists the task of unraveling the secret of the chemical structure of the rubber molecule in a short time and of learning to produce, in laboratories and industry, what nature produces without us, in the form of the juice of special plants.
Even before the Great October Socialist Revolution, the outstanding Russian chemist S. V. Lebedev came close to solving the problem of the artificial synthesis of rubber. But only under the conditions of the Soviet system did Soviet chemists, headed by S. V. Lebedev, uncover the secrets of the structure of rubber and develop a technology for the production of synthetic rubber. Thus, in this area of chemical knowledge, the cognizability of the world was proved in practice. These examples from the history of astronomical discoveries, physics and chemistry confirm the position of Marxist philosophical materialism that the sweat of things is unknowable, and there are only things that are not yet known, which, however, sooner or later will be replenished by the forces of science and practice.
Thus, the unity of living contemplation, abstract scientific thought and practice makes it possible to reflect nature more and more deeply. Science and practice have proven the correctness of the provisions of Marxist philosophical materialism, which claims that the possibilities of human knowledge are endless. From living contemplation to abstract thinking, and from it - to practice - such is the way of knowing the truth.
So, practice proves the cognizability of the world. Practice-tested knowledge of the laws of nature are objective truths.
How does Marxist philosophical materialism understand truth?
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