The Development of Philosophy in Ancient Rome. Philosophical thought in ancient Rome. See what "Roman philosophy" is in other dictionaries

Philosophy ancient rome(from the 3rd century BC) developed under the strong influence of Greek culture. It was represented mainly by three currents: Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism. The leading role among them was played by Stoic philosophy (Seneca Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius).

Seneca("uncle of Christianity") was the most prominent figure in Roman stoicism. He held the idea that everything in this world is in the power of rigid necessity and predestination. God as the supreme force ("active mind") gives the world integrity, order and expediency. God is that on which everything depends and proceeds. God is nature, reason, reason and destiny. The world is literally bound by the iron chains of necessity, or fate. Consequently, human freedom can only consist in the awareness of this necessity and voluntary submission to it. But since the world is rational, then freedom must also consist in subordination only to rational necessity. In all other cases, freedom will certainly mean slavery. Obedience to fate is the lot of every person if he does not want to fall into slavery. To live happily means for Seneca to live in harmony with the outside world, submissively obeying it.

The existence of a person is always short, fleeting, therefore, according to the philosopher, one should not strive for dubious goals: the accumulation of wealth and gaining power in society. It is much more important to improve your soul, overcome the fear of impending death and find peace. It is best to seek shelter in the "quiet backwater" than to expose yourself to the "blow of the waves" in the stormy and always restless ocean of life. Seneca believed that relations in society should be permeated with moral values. Society is a whole, and it must be maintained by people's love, compassion and care for each other. As in the world as a whole, it is impossible to change the order of things in society, so everyone should treat each other as comrades in forced slavery. Based on this circumstance, Seneca formulated " Golden Rule morality: "Treat those below you as you would like to be treated by those above you." All people are in fact slaves of fate. At the same time, they are equally free, since they are given control over their soul and their thoughts. In this sense, prison is not a barrier for a person, Seneca naively believed. Freedom of the spirit - this is what attracts a person to the truly great and eternal. "

Epictetus (former slave) emphasized that the main task of any philosophy is to help a person arrange his life correctly. The world it is almost impossible to change, and therefore it remains only to take care of the relationship of people with each other. You should obey the order of things in the world and focus on the states of your soul. According to Epictetus, it is important, first of all, to honor the gods and believe in them, not to interfere in current events, but to obey them. The world was created by God and therefore reasonable, which is why each individual person can only exist for the sake of the whole and obey it.

Marcus Aurelius(Roman emperor), like all the Stoics, believed that a person's freedom is limited only by the space of his thought. This is the only thing that is in his power. The main task of all human actions should be subordination to the cosmic order of things. Man is just a particle of an endless world stream. His whole life is a short moment, struggle and wandering in a foreign land. Life is a smoke, and only philosophy is able to give a person consolation and peace. If fate rules, then why resist it? Man is mortal, his life is completely incomparable with the endless and impetuous flow of time. And the longest, and the most short life equally vulnerable to this all-devouring and ruthless flow. There is only one choice left: to live in the present, because the past is lived, and the future is unknown.

Epicureanism was represented in ancient Rome mainly by "the work of the philosopher-poet Tita Lucretia Kara(poem "On the Nature of Things"). Lucretius was a consistent supporter of the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus, defending their atomistic theory. In his poem, he wrote about the gods, about the soul and its properties, about the physiology of man and his knowledge of the world. Matter for Lucretius is the world of moving atoms. It is uncreated and indestructible by anyone, infinite in time and space. Atoms, as some kind of "bricks" of the world, have different sizes and shapes, which explains the diversity of the world. The human soul is also material "being created from air and heat. The spirit, according to Lucretius, is very thin and has the highest speed.

studying public life, Lucretius recorded the presence of progress in it. Thus, he noted that in the primitive state, people were essentially in a wild state and did not yet have either fire or dwellings. Over time, the primitive herd acquired signs of society. It gradually formed such important institutions as morality and law. However, the dependence of man on natural and social forces still remained, which gives rise to religious faith. Ignorance and fear gave birth to the gods, emphasized the Roman philosopher. To make people happy, they must be relieved of the feeling of fear of the gods, and various sciences (including philosophy) can help them in this matter.

The philosophy of Lucretius, like all Epicureanism, focused on explaining the world from the standpoint of common sense and natural science. The teachings of this ancient enlightener brought people knowledge and self-confidence, helped them overcome prejudices and delusions.

Roman skepticism was represented by several famous thinkers. The most notable among them was Sextus Empiricus, a physician by profession. He made a great contribution to the study of the history of skepticism and its systematization (works "Against the Scientists", "Pyrrho's Principles"). As in Greece, Roman skepticism expressed the crisis of society and carried in itself the charge of criticism of knowledge.

In ancient Rome, eclecticism also took place, uniting heterogeneous teachings and schools. Among its authors stood out Mark Thulius Cicero, an outstanding politician and orator, philosopher. In his work, he addressed, first of all, social issues, being committed to the best traditions of Greek philosophy. According to Cicero, the main task of philosophy is “cultivating the human soul”, teaching him the art of a right life and shaping the qualities of a citizen. Philosophy is wisdom, the knowledge of good and evil, and therefore none of the fools can ever become a happy person.

Ancient Roman society had a rich science and culture for those times. Poets Virgil, Horace and Ovid gained worldwide fame. In Rome, the grandiose architectural complexes of the Colosseum and the Pantheon were erected. That time gave famous historians - Joseph Flavius, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus. In the first half of the II century AD. An outstanding astronomer, mathematician and philosopher Claudius Ptolemy lived in Rome. The well-known physician Galen (“Roman Hippocrates”), the author of the doctrine of the movement of blood in the human body, also worked in Rome.

The philosophy of ancient Rome completes the development of philosophical thought in an era of crisis and collapse of the slave-owning formation. In the depths of this philosophy and on its “fragments”, the ideological prerequisites for the emergence of early Christianity as a new religion, a picture of the world around and a person in it, were formed.

QUESTIONS TO CONTROL

1. What processes and phenomena of social life "nourished" the development of philosophical thought in the ancient world?

2. What can you say about the subject field (range of problems) of ancient philosophy? What is characteristic of him?

3. What did cosmocentrism mean ancient Greek philosophy?

4. Is it possible to talk about the presence in ancient philosophy elements of scientific knowledge about man?

5. What is the ideological and methodological significance of ancient Greek philosophy?

RELATED LITERATURE

1. Asmus V.F. ancient philosophy. - 2nd ed. - M., 1976.

2 Bogomolov A.S. Antique Philosophy. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1985.

3. Dzhokhadze D.V. The main stages in the development of ancient philosophy. - M., 1977.

4. Ivanov G R. History of ethics ancient world. - L.: LGU, 1980. 5 Cassidy F.Kh. From Myth to Logos (The Formation of Greek Philosophy). - M .: Thought, 1972. "

6. Kun N.A. Legends and myths of Ancient Greece. - M.: Vika-press, Ark-tos, 1992.

7. Losev A F. History of ancient philosophy in a concise presentation. - M. Thought, 1989.

8. Frolov E D Torch of Prometheus. Essays on ancient social thought. - 2nd edition - L .. Leningrad State University, 1991.

9. Chanyshev A.N. Course of lectures on ancient philosophy: Proc. allowance for philosophy. fak. and departments of un-comrade. - M.: Higher school, 1981

MEDIEVAL PHILOSOPHY: ORIGINS FEATURES, CONTENT

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME
Rubric (thematic category)	Regilia

Roman philosophy arose in the II - I centuries. BC. from what the Greek ends at the same time - with eclecticism(ᴛ.ᴇ. philosophical trend, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ does not create its own philosophical system. Based on a single principle, and does not join the views of any one philosopher, but takes from various systems what he considers correct, and compares it all into one more or less complete whole).

Deep consistency in the development of certain philosophical positions, inherent in the Greek thinkers of the ʼʼclassicalʼʼ era, is replaced by a superficial agreement of various principles, the convergence of warring schools and trends. The materialistic school of Epicurus finds numerous followers in the late Hellenistic period and penetrates into Rome. Its remarkable representative on Roman soil was the poet Lucretius Carus.
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One of the directions of the school of Aristotle, connected with the study of nature, also leaned towards the views of materialists. These were the followers of Strato, nicknamed the ʼʼphysicistʼʼ.

Although Greece was enslaved by Rome, Rome was conquered by Greece spiritually.

Roman philosophy is divided into Latin-speaking and Greek-speaking. In addition to the rich Latin-language Roman philosophical literature, respected and revered in Rome was considered Greek language, knowledge of which was a sign of culture and education.

Primitive super-polytheism lay at the root of the Roman-Latin artistic-mythological-religious worldview. In the naive idea of a superstitious Roman, every object and every phenomenon had its counterpart - the spirit, its deity (penates, lares and manes).

In ancient Rome, the cult of ancestors was developed - manism. The role of magic was great. Knowledge of magical actions and incantations was the business of a special Roman class - the priests, who were united in colleges, and enjoyed more influence than the priests in Greece. The college of pontiffs was especially influential. Its chairman was considered the high priest of Rome (supreme pontiff). Priests-fortunetellers played an important role in Roman life:

Priests - augurs (predicted the future by the flight of birds);

Priests - haruspeks (predicted the future by the entrails of sacrificial animals).

The classical Roman pantheon was formed under the influence of the classical Greek pantheon. At the same time, many gods of Rome are identified and adopt the features of the gods of Greece, for example: Jupiter - Zeus, Juno - Hera, Minerva - Athena, Venus - Aphrodite, etc.

The traditional foundations of the Roman community were:

Courage, steadfastness, honesty, fidelity, dignity, moderation, submission to military discipline, law; age-old customs, veneration of family and national gods.

Rome rested on four cornerstones:

Ø Libertas- the independence of the individual and her freedom to defend her interests within the framework of the law.

Ø Justitia- a set of legal regulations that protect the dignity of a person in accordance with his social status.

Ø fides- fidelity to duty, constituting a moral guarantee of the execution of laws.

Ø Pietas- a reverent duty to the gods, the homeland and fellow citizens, requiring you to always give preference to their interests, and not your own.

In order to become the ruler of the world, the Romans, relying on the values listed above, developed the main value, albeit harsh, but sublime: virtus- civil prowess and courage to be, no matter what.

The political decline of Greece, and then the Hellenistic states, led to the fact that Greek philosophical thought began to increasingly focus on Rome. An educated Greek becomes a frequent guest in the chambers of influential and wealthy Romans. Greek education plays an important role in the education of future statesmen of the Roman Republic.

It is in Greek philosophy that the ideas of the historical role of Rome are nurtured, the signs of its world domination, as a ʼʼreasonable, extremely important stiʼʼ, which must be submitted. The Stoic school, which provided the philosophical basis for this view, had many followers among the Roman aristocracy.

The success of this school is due to What is she. Not particularly caring about the emerging contradictions, eclectically 1 combined the various popular motifs of Greek philosophy into one whole. In II - I centuries. BC (the period of the middle Stoa), this doctrine borrows a number of provisions from the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle.

PANETIUS (rhodes island)(180-110 BC) - moved to Rome, where he brought the old Stoic ideal of the sage closer to the political interests of the Roman aristocracy. He emphasized the importance of practical wisdom and virtues, and did not require the sage to renounce the surrounding life and, in particular, state activities.

Eclectic - one who does not create his own philosophical system based on a single principle, and does not adhere to the views of any one philosopher, but takes from various systems what he finds correct, and ties all this into one more or less complete whole.

The highest good is ϶ᴛᴏ life in accordance with nature; the natural aspirations of man lead him to virtue.

For Panetius, fate (tihe) is only a useful regulator human life, educator of too unbridled and passionate natures.
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He expressed doubts about the immortality of the soul and had a negative attitude towards faith in astrology and the possibility of predicting the future.

POSIDONIUS OF ALAMEIA(135-50 gᴦ. BC) - a student of Panetius, for a long time he headed the philosophical school on about. Rhodes. He returned to the views of the Old Stoic school - about the impending death of the world in fire, to the belief in the immortality of the soul and the existence of demons, to the doctrine of the dependence of human life and fate on the location of the stars, etc. The ethical views of Posidonius are closely connected with Plato's idea of the human soul. The soul is an arena of struggle between two principles - spiritual and bodily. Everything that comes from the body deserves condemnation, for the flesh is the prison of the soul, its fetters. He believes in the mystical pre-existence of the soul prior to its incarnation in the body.

Posidonius continued to develop the doctrine of state system(as a mixed form), based on a combination of the principles of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy.

CICERO MARK TULLIUS(106 - 43 gᴦ. BC) - outlined the foundations of various philosophical systems and developed Latin philosophical terminology.

q Cicero's human idealʼʼthe first man of the republicʼʼ, ʼʼappeaserʼʼ, ʼʼguardian and guardianʼʼ in times of crisis, combining Greek philosophical theory and Roman political (oratory) practice. He considered himself a model of such a figure.

q philosophical ideal Cicero - a combination of theoretical skepticism, which does not know the truth, allowing only probability, with practical stoicism, strictly following a moral duty that coincides with the public good and world law.

q Cicero's oratorical idealʼʼabundanceʼʼ, conscious possession of all means that can both interest, convince, and captivate the listener; these tools are formed into three styles - high, medium and simple. Each style has its own degree of purity of vocabulary and harmony of syntax.

q Cicero's political idealʼʼmixed state structureʼʼ (a state combining elements of a monarchy, aristocracy and democracy; a model of which he considered the Roman Republic of the 3rd - 2nd centuries BC), supported by ʼʼconsent of estatesʼʼ, ʼʼunanimity of all worthyʼʼ.

Key Thoughts:

Ø To each his own.

Ø Probabilistic knowledge is the limit of human understanding.

Ø It is common for everyone to err, but only the foolish persists in delusions.

Ø Friends are known in trouble.

Ø Paper will endure everything.

Ø For me, my conscience means more than the speeches of all.

Ø The good of the people is the highest law.

Ø Where it is good, there is the fatherland.

Ø Oh, times! Oh morals!

Ø Life is short, but glory must be eternal.

Ø What a person is, such is his speech.

Ø Eloquence - ϶ᴛᴏ light that gives brilliance to the mind.

Ø It is not enough to master wisdom, one must also be able to use it.

Ø Some opposites give birth to others.

Ø Habit is second nature.

Ø Labor dulls the pain.

TITUS LUCRETIUS CAR(98-55 gᴦ. BC) - ancient Roman philosopher, poet; successor of the teachings of Epicurus; introduced the concept of ʼʼmatterʼʼ.

Ø In the poem ʼʼOn the Nature of Thingsʼʼ, he developed and promoted the materialistic teachings of Epicurus, trying to rid people of religious superstitions and fear of the gods generated by ignorance and afterlife. Denying any intervention of the gods in people's lives, he gave a natural explanation for the origin and development of the universe and mankind.

Ø He claimed that everything consists of indivisible ʼʼ beginningsʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. atoms that are neither created nor destroyed. They have a certain shape, weight and motion inseparable from matter.

Moving in the void surrounding them, like dust particles in a sunbeam, and spontaneously deviating from a direct direction, atoms, according to a certain law, unite and form everything that exists - from stars to human souls, which Lucretius also considered material and, therefore, dying simultaneously with the body.

Having disintegrated in one place, the atoms unite in another, forming new worlds and new living beings. For this reason, the universe is eternal and infinite.

Ø He tried to give a natural-scientific explanation of the origin of man and society, which develops without the intervention of the gods.

After the formation of the earth, plants arose from dampness and warmth, then animals, many of which were imperfect and died out, and, finally, man. At first, people were wild like animals, but gradually, thanks to experience and observation, they learned how to make fire, build dwellings, and cultivate the land.

People began to unite in families, and families began to unite for mutual support in society. This made it possible to develop the language, sciences, arts, crafts, ideas of law and justice. But kings appeared, the most powerful began to seize and divide the land; property and the lust for wealth arose, leading to wars and crimes.

Key Thoughts:

Ø From nothing (without nothing) nothing happens.

Ø Now, not with the bright arrows of the day and not with the rays of the sun, it is necessary to dispel horrors and stupefaction of the spirit, but by studying and interpreting the laws of nature.

Ø The spirit is strong with joy.

Ø The meaning of things changes with the passage of time.

Ø If the feelings are not true, then our whole mind will turn out to be false.

Ø After true death there will be no second you.

Ø The soul is born together with the body.

Ø The knowledge of truth is generated in us by feelings.

Ø Whatever the patient with jaundice looks at, everything seems yellowish to him.

Ø Something bitter comes from the source of pleasure.

Ø My science is ϶ᴛᴏ to live and be healthy.

The leading philosophical trend in Rome in the 1st - 2nd centuries. BC. was stoicism(New Stoya) introduced Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius. Late Stoicism dealt mainly with ethics, and this ethics could not be more suited to the conditions of the world empire.

The Stoics tirelessly preached that each person is only a part of a huge organism, the good of which is much more important than the good of its members. For this reason, everyone must, without struggle or protest, meet everything that fate sends to him. Since external circumstances - wealth, position, health, freedom and life itself - do not depend on a person, he should consider them indifferent to himself and accept them with complete indifference. The only duty of a person is to improve in wisdom and virtue, to fulfill his duty to society and to maintain peace of mind in any situation. Stoicism did not open any other perspectives to its followers. Everything moves in closed cycles, there is nothing new in the world and cannot be. In essence, the immortality of the soul was also denied - after death, the soul decomposes like a body, and its elements are again drawn into the endless cycle of nature.

LUCIUS ANNEUS SENEC(4 - 65 gᴦ.) - Roman philosopher, poet and statesman; Nero's tutor. He had extensive knowledge, the ability to penetrate deeply into nature and into man, and was an excellent stylist.

Philosophy is the moral and religious guide in life. Proceeding from the moral weaknesses of a person, Seneca demanded moral rigor in relation to himself and reasonable, compassion-free indulgence towards his neighbor.

The highest virtue is loyalty to oneself.

The personality and works of Seneca contributed to the fact that the influence of Stoicism on the social and literary life of Rome, on legislation, legal duties and public administration, even on Christianity, was extremely strong and lasting.

Key Thoughts:

Ø Philosophy is both healing and pleasant at the same time.

Ø There is no slavery more shameful than the slavery of the spirit.

Ø The fate of those who agree with it leads, those who oppose it drag.

Ø Reason - ϶ᴛᴏ is nothing but a part of the divine spirit, immersed in the body of people.

Ø Soul - ϶ᴛᴏ God who has found shelter in the human body.

Ø The first hour of life reduced life for an hour.

Ø It is better to study too much than not to study anything.

Ø Many things are forbidden to Caesar precisely because everything is allowed to him.

Ø Before you say anything to others, say it to yourself.

Ø Great destiny - great slavery.

Ø The shortest path to wealth is through contempt for wealth.

Ø Drunkenness - ϶ᴛᴏ voluntary madness.

Ø After death, everything stops, even she herself.

EPICTETUS(c.50 - 138 gᴦ.) - ancient Greek philosopher; a slave in Rome, then a freedman; founded a philosophical school in Nikopol. He preached the ideas of stoicism: the main task of philosophy is to teach to distinguish between what is within our power and what is not. We are not subject to everything that is outside of us, the bodily, external world.
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It is not these things themselves, but only our ideas about them that make us happy or unhappy; but our thoughts, aspirations, and, consequently, our happiness is subject to us.

All people are children of the one God, and the whole life of a person must be in connection with God, which makes a person able to courageously resist the vicissitudes of life.

Key Thoughts:

Ø An earthly person is a weak soul burdened with a corpse.

Ø The sadness of another is ϶ᴛᴏ someone else's ...

Ø It should always be remembered that we cannot control events, but must adapt to them.

Ø In no case do not call yourself a Philosopher and do not talk about the rules and laws of philosophy in front of the ignorant.

MARK AURELIUS ANTONINUS (121-180 gᴦ.) - Roman emperor from the Antonin dynasty, philosopher, representative of late Stoicism, follower of Epictetus.

He is the author of the well-known philosophical essay ʼʼTo Yourselfʼʼ. At the center of his anti-materialistic teaching is man's partial possession of his body, spirit and soul, the bearer of which is a pious, courageous and rational person - the mistress, the educator of a sense of duty and the abode of a testing conscience.

Through the spirit, all people take part in the divine and thereby create an ideological community that overcomes all limitations.

Key Thoughts:

Ø Do not rush to agree with talkers.

Ø Look inside yourself.

Ø People exist for each other.

Ø Everything human is smoke, nothing.

Ø Don't be content with a superficial look.

Ø ʼʼSoon you will forget about everything, and everyone in turn will forget about youʼʼ.

PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "PHILOSOPHY OF ANCIENT ROME" 2017, 2018.

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Introduction

After the subjugation of Greece to Rome in the II century. BC e. The Roman Empire began to take over philosophical teachings, which appeared in ancient Greece in the era of the collapse of the Athenian state. Unlike Greek philosophy Roman philosophy was predominantly ethical in nature. The main task of Roman philosophy is not the study of the essence of things, but the problem of achieving the highest good, happiness, the development of rules for life.

In this paper, some of the main philosophical directions established in Rome, such as stoicism, epicureanism and skepticism, as well as their prominent representatives - Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Lucretius Carus and Aenesidemus.

1. Stoicism

stoicism skepticism rome philosophy

Stoicism is one of the most influential teachings philosophical schools antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China; its name comes from the "Painted Portico" - "Stoi" in Athens, where Zenon taught. The history of Stoicism is traditionally divided into three periods: Early (Zeno III-II centuries BC), Middle (Panaetius, Posidonius, Hekaton II-I centuries BC) and Late (or Roman) Stoicism (Seneca , Marcus Aurelius I-II centuries AD).

The doctrine of the Stoics is usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. Their comparison of philosophy with an orchard is well known: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.

Logics- a fundamental part of stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of knowledge, being, and philosophizing as a strict "scientific" procedure.

Physics. The Stoics represent the world as a living organism. According to Stoicism, everything that exists is corporeal, and differs only in the degree of “roughness” or “subtlety” of matter. Force is the subtlest matter. The power that governs the world as a whole is God. All matter is but a variation of this divine force. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.

Ethics. All people are citizens of space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equalized all people in the face of the world law: free and slaves, citizens and barbarians, men and women. According to the Stoics, every moral action is self-preservation and self-affirmation and increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one's own human nature. Right desires, deeds and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness, for this you need to develop your personality in every possible way, not be submissive to fate, not bow before any force.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD)

Seneca was from Cordoba, he attached great importance to the practical side of philosophy, ethics and explored the question of how to live a virtuous life without delving into the theoretical study of the nature of virtue. He sees philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. “Let our words bring not pleasure, but benefit - the patient is looking for the wrong doctor who speaks eloquently.”

In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God. He believed that fate is not a blind element. She has a mind, a piece of which is present in every person. Any misfortune is an occasion for virtuous self-improvement. The philosopher proposes to strive for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrender to the will of the laws of nature.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC – 180 BC)

Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD. e., in reflections "To himself" says that "the only thing that is in the power of man is his thoughts." "Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of goodness, which is able to beat without drying up, if you constantly dig into it. He understands the world as eternally current and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, the obedience to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: “Calm thought with everything that comes from outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them be in actions that are generally useful, for this is in accordance with your nature.”

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism.

2. Epicureanism

Epicureanism was the only ancient Rome materialistic philosophy. The materialistic trend in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy was named after its founder, Epicurus. At the end of the 2nd c. BC e. there are followers of Epicurus among the Romans, the most prominent of which was Titus Lucretius Car.

Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC - 55 BC)

Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Epicurus. In his work “On the Nature of Things”, he masterfully explains, proves and propagates the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism both from earlier and contemporary opponents, giving at the same time the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only thing that exists. Where there is emptiness, so-called space, there is no matter; and where matter is stretched out, there is no emptiness and space in no way.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

Lucretius tries to explain the emergence of society in a natural way. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-savage state", not knowing fire and dwelling. Only development material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into a society. Like Epicurus, he believed that society (law, laws) arises as a product of mutual agreement of people: “Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, no longer wanting to cause lawlessness and enmity, and children and the female gender were taken under protection, showing gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although consent could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the agreement was faithfully fulfilled.

The materialism of Lucretius also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes the gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the concept of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes.

Epicureanism remained in Roman society for a comparatively long time. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity became official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle began against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which, in the end, led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

3. Skepticism

Skepticism is based on a position based on the doubt that there is any reliable criterion of truth. Skepticism is contradictory in nature, it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, while others to militant ignorance and immorality. The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).

Pyrrho and his philosophical views

According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, consists only in imperturbable calm, combined with the absence of suffering.

Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how they should be treated; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them.

Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, nor could it be argued that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can be countered with equal right by a statement that contradicts it.

From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho deduced the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude to things consists in refraining from any judgments. This answer predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and advantage arising from the abstinence from all kinds of judgments consists in equanimity or serenity. This condition, called ataraxia, based on the rejection of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest degree of bliss.

The efforts of Pyrrho, aimed at fettering human curiosity with doubt and slowing down the movement along the path of the progressive development of knowledge, were in vain. The future, which was presented to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came, and none of its warnings succeeded in stopping it.

4. Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism developed in the III-V centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the existence of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical direction that arose in the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social setting as Christianity. Its founder was Ammonius Sakkas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).

Plotinus and his philosophical views

Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overreasonable divine principle. All forms of life depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure thinking, which becomes possible only when thought is "rejected" - ecstasy. Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this only true being.

Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, then the divine soul, and below all, nature.

Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. It is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them.

Conclusion

In general, the philosophy of Ancient Rome had a huge impact on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization. The philosophy of Ancient Rome contained the beginnings of the main types of philosophical worldview, which were developed in all subsequent centuries. Many of the problems that ancient philosophers pondered have not lost their relevance to this day. The study of ancient philosophy gives us not only valuable information about the results of the reflections of outstanding thinkers, but also contributes to the development of more refined philosophical thinking.

Bibliography

1. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. I.”: Centerpolygraph; Moscow; 2003

2. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. II.”: Centerpolygraph; Moscow; 2003

Other information resources

3. Materials of the curriculum of the College of Entrepreneurship No. 15. Lecture on the Philosophy of Ancient Rome

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Option 10.

Topic: Philosophy of Ancient Rome

Savelicheva Irina

Introduction

The meaning of ancient philosophy

Conclusion

Introduction

The philosophy of ancient Rome, like the philosophy of Hellenism, is mainly ethical in nature. It directly affects political life society. At its very center of attention are the problems of reconciling the interests of various groups, as well as the achievement of the highest good, not to mention the development of life rules and so on. In all these conditions, the philosophy of the so-called "Stoics" received the greatest distribution and influence. They developed questions about the rights and obligations of the individual, as well as the nature of the relationship between the individual and the state, adding legal and moral standards, while the Roman flock sought to contribute not only to the education of a disciplined warrior, but, of course, a citizen. The largest representative of the Stoic school is Seneca, who lived from 5 BC to 65 AD. Seneca was not only a thinker and statesman, he was also a mentor to the emperor Nero himself. It was he who recommended to the emperor that rather moderation and a republican spirit be followed in his reign. Thanks to this, Seneca achieved that he was “ordered to die”, so he, fully following all his philosophical principles, surrounded by his admirers, opened his veins.

At the same time, according to Seneca, the most important task of becoming a person is the achievement of virtue. But the study of philosophy is not only a theoretical study, it is also the actual exercise of virtue. Seneca was sure that philosophy is not in words, but in deeds, since it forms and shapes the spirit, organizes life, controls actions, and also indicates what should and should not be done.

The Specificity and Significance of Ancient Roman Philosophy

The significance of ancient Roman philosophy should be seen, first of all, in the fact that it served as a link between ancient Greek and medieval European philosophies. This happened because, during its development, ancient Roman philosophy borrowed ideas and concepts from Greek thought and adapted them to philosophizing in Latin. The Western European philosophy of the Middle Ages and subsequent eras was built on the foundation of predominantly ancient Roman philosophy, which retained, even in a depleted and distorted form, the content of the highest achievements of Greek philosophy. As you know, the Latin language became for many centuries the European language of philosophizing, and the philosophical terminology expressed in it acquired a universal character. antique philosophy ethics

Similarities and differences between Roman Stoics and Epicureans

The similarity between the Roman Stoics and the Epicureans was in their orientation towards life by nature, isolation and autarchy, serenity and apathy, in their ideas about the materiality of the gods and the soul, the mortality of man and his return to the world whole. But the Epicurean understanding of nature as the material universe remained, and the Stoics as reason; justice as a social contract - by the Epicureans, and as a duty to the whole world - by the Stoics; recognition of free will by the Epicureans and higher order and predestination by the Stoics; the idea of the linearity of the development of the world among the Epicureans and the cyclical development of the Stoics; orientation towards personal friendship among the Epicureans and participation in public affairs among the Stoics. For the Stoics, the source of happiness is reason, and the basic concept is virtue; for the Epicureans, respectively, feelings and pleasures.

Man is an integral part of the universe, therefore the main ethical principle in stoicism becomes the idea of obedience to the world law, fate. From these positions, the Stoics criticized the Epicureans for their doctrine of human freedom, believing that all human actions are subject to world laws, which are absolutely inevitable and to oppose it is a waste of energy.

Compared to the Epicureans, the Stoics were generally quite pessimistic about our ability to control external goods. Therefore, they recommended that each person should make himself independent of external circumstances. If we want to secure our personal happiness, we must learn to be as independent as possible from uncontrollable external factors and learn to live within our inner world, which we can control.

The meaning of ancient philosophy

Philosophy, which was formed in the era of Antiquity, for more than a millennium kept and increased theoretical knowledge, and also served as a regulator of social life. She explained the laws of society and nature, thus creating the prerequisites for the further development of philosophical knowledge. Nevertheless, already after Christianity began to spread on the territory of the Roman Empire, the ancient philosophy underwent a rather serious revision.

The term "antiquity" comes from the Latin word antiquus - ancient. It is customary to call them a special period in the development of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as those lands and peoples that were under their cultural influence. The chronological framework of this period, like any other cultural and historical phenomenon, cannot be precisely determined, but they largely coincide with the time of existence of the ancient states themselves: from the 11th-9th centuries. BC, the time of the formation of ancient society in Greece and before V AD. - the death of the Roman Empire under the blows of the barbarians.

Common to ancient states were the ways of social development and a special form of ownership - ancient slavery, as well as the form of production based on it. Their civilization was common with a common historical and cultural complex. This does not, of course, deny the presence of indisputable features and differences in the life of ancient societies. The main, pivotal in ancient culture were religion and mythology. Mythology was for the ancient Greeks the content and form of their worldview, their worldview, it was inseparable from the life of this society. Then - ancient slavery. It was not only the basis of the economy and social life, it was also the basis of the worldview of the people of that time. Next, it is necessary to single out science and artistic culture. When studying the culture of ancient Greece and Rome, it is necessary first of all to concentrate on these dominants of ancient culture.

Antique culture is a unique phenomenon that gave general cultural values in literally all areas of spiritual and material activity. Only three generations of cultural figures, whose lives practically fit into classical period the history of Ancient Greece, laid the foundations of European civilization and created images to follow for millennia to come. The distinctive features of ancient Greek culture: spiritual diversity, mobility and freedom - allowed the Greeks to reach unprecedented heights before the peoples imitate the Greeks, build a culture according to the patterns they created.

The main postulates of ancient ethics

Home philosophical discipline ethics was considered, consideration of the issues of "physics" and "logic" was subordinate to ethical issues in nature. In general, this was in line with general trends development of Hellenistic philosophy. After all, philosophy was then considered not so much as a doctrine of causes and principles, but as an instruction in the art of life, in achieving happiness and equanimity. In general, we can talk about some simplification, vulgarization of ancient philosophy in the Roman period.

In the early writings of ancient scientists, ethics was inextricably linked with philosophy. These works gave more preference to the problems of the structure of the world, the cosmic nature of man, his place in this cosmos. Then, when many Greek cities became independent policies in which a democratic system was established, scientists began to pay attention to the moral and ethical problems of human behavior in society, and gradually ancient ethics began to be defined as an independent science. It happened around the 4th century. BC e.

Sophists became the founders of ethical teachings. These were teachers of philosophy who proclaimed man as the measure of good and evil. According to the sophists, there are no laws in nature that limit the will of man, all moral and moral values proceed from his own interests. Protagoras became a prominent representative of the sophists.

Socrates criticized the sophists, who believed that moral laws exist, and it is the duty of a person to correlate his value system with them. Socrates believed that morality is directly related to knowledge, he became the founder of ethical rationalism.

Plato founded a systematic ethical doctrine based on the postulate that the human soul resides in an ideal world with high values before entering the physical body. Each person is born with a soul endowed with 3 properties - will, feelings and reason, and one property is always predominant. And if a person is engaged in a business that correlates with the predominant property of the soul, then he will be happy, and society as a whole is ideal. According to Plato, justice must also be inherent in society, when its layers do not interfere in each other's lives.

The term "ethics" was first introduced by Aristotle. In contrast to Plato, he believed that the moral and ethical qualities of a person are not formed in other world but under the influence of real social life. Happiness can be achieved by comprehending the basic principles of ethics. In each person there is an unreasonable and reasonable component, balances their mind and its development gives the right direction to these components. Ethics according to Aristotle is the experience of social life.

The turning point of ethical teachings, addressed to the social life of man, was the appearance of the works of the ancient Greek materialist Epicurus. He substantiated the doctrine directed at the man himself. He considered the achievement of happiness through bodily pleasures, knowledge and wisdom to be the main thing in life. All this, according to Epicurus, should be balanced in a person.

Almost simultaneously with the writings of Epicurus, Stoicism appears, the doctrine developed by Seneca and Marcus Aurelius. The Stoics believed that man should not be separated from nature. He is not able to change the laws of nature, and the happiness of everyone depends on the internal attitude to what is happening. By developing the inner world, a person can come to harmony with nature and happiness.

Conclusion

Ancient Greek and Roman philosophies have had a decisive influence on the entire history of Western and partly even world philosophy up to the present day. We owe the very term "philosophy" precisely to antiquity. The heyday of ancient Greek philosophy falls on the V-IV centuries. BC e., and its echoes died away for another millennium. In Byzantium and the countries of Islam, the dominant influence of Greek philosophy continued throughout the next millennium; then, during the Renaissance and humanism, and in Europe there was a revival of Greek philosophy, which led to creative new formations, starting from Platonism and Aristotelianism of the Renaissance and ending with the influence of Greek philosophy on the entire development of European philosophical thought.

German philosopher I.G. Fichte argued: “Man is destined to live in society; he is not fully human and contradicts his essence if he lives as a hermit.

Do you agree with this statement? Give a detailed justification for your position.

I agree with this statement. Since a person must live in society, and not be renounced from it. Man was created with the need to communicate. It can be fully revealed only in society. Living as a hermit, he buries his essence. A hermit man is not a person, and not even an animal, even animals live in packs, groups, etc. They do not live for themselves, not to mention people! And by nature, a person is supposed to think not only about himself, but also about his environment, since he is the most intelligent creature on the planet.

Test tasks

1. This ancient thinker considered "man the measure of all things":

a) Protagoras

2. Indicate the thinker, in whose opinion collective ideas play a leading role in the development of society:

c) E. Durkheim

3. Plato wrote his compositions in the form:

c) dialogues

a) empiricism

5. The unique originality of any phenomenon, creature, person, in which it acts as a characteristic, acting as a counterweight to the general, typical

c) personality.

Literature

1. Skirbeck G., Guille N. History of Philosophy.

Internet resources:

1.www.studfiles.ru/dir/cat10/subj171/file16320/view156439.html

2.www.domowner.ru/5.htm

3. www. domowner. en/2. htm

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Autonomous non-profit organization of higher professional
Education "Russian Academy of Entrepreneurship"

Essay
in philosophy
on the topic of:
"Philosophy of Ancient Rome"

Performed by a student of the VDK group - 12 - 019
Pirogova O.V.

Scientific director
Shemyakina E. M.

Moscow
year 2012

Content

Introduction
After the subjugation of Greece to Rome in the II century. BC e. The Roman Empire began to adopt the philosophical teachings that appeared in ancient Greece in the era of the collapse of the Athenian state. Unlike Greek philosophy, Roman philosophy was predominantly ethical in nature. The main task of Roman philosophy is not the study of the essence of things, but the problem of achieving the highest good, happiness, the development of rules for life.
This paper will consider some of the main philosophical trends established in Rome, such as Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism, as well as their prominent representatives - Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Lucretius Carus and Aenesidemus.

Stoicism
Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China; its name comes from the "Painted Portico" - "Stoi" in Athens, where Zenon taught. The history of Stoicism is traditionally divided into three periods: Early (Zeno III-II centuries BC), Middle (Panaetius, Posidonius, Hekaton II-I centuries BC) and Late (or Roman) Stoicism (Seneca , Marcus Aurelius I-II centuries AD).
The doctrine of the Stoics is usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. Their comparison of philosophy with an orchard is well known: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is a growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.
Logic is a fundamental part of Stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of knowledge, being, and philosophizing as a strict "scientific" procedure.
Physics. The Stoics represent the world as a living organism. According to Stoicism, everything that exists is corporeal, and differs only in the degree of “roughness” or “subtlety” of matter. Force is the subtlest matter. The power that governs the world as a whole is God. All matter is but a variation of this divine force. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.
Ethics. All people are citizens of space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equalized all people in the face of the world law: free and slaves, citizens and barbarians, men and women. According to the Stoics, every moral action is self-preservation and self-affirmation and increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one's own human nature. Right desires, deeds and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness, for this you need to develop your personality in every possible way, not be submissive to fate, not bow before any force.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD)
Seneca was from Cordoba, he attached great importance to the practical side of philosophy, ethics and explored the question of how to live a virtuous life without delving into the theoretical study of the nature of virtue. He sees philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. “Let our words bring not pleasure, but benefit - the patient is looking for the wrong doctor who speaks eloquently.”
In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God. He believed that fate is not a blind element. She has a mind, a piece of which is present in every person. Any misfortune is an occasion for virtuous self-improvement. The philosopher proposes to strive for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrender to the will of the laws of nature.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC – 180 BC)
Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD. e., in his reflections "To himself" says that "the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts." "Look into your gut! There, inside, there is a source of goodness, which is able to beat without drying up, if you constantly dig into it. He understands the world as eternally current and changeable. The main goal of human aspirations should be the achievement of virtue, that is, the obedience to "reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature." Marcus Aurelius recommends: “Calm thought with everything that comes from outside, and justice with everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, your desire and action, let them be in actions that are generally useful, for this is in accordance with your nature.”
Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism.

Epicureanism.
Epicureanism was the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome. The materialistic trend in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy was named after its founder, Epicurus. At the end of the 2nd c. BC e. there are followers of Epicurus among the Romans, the most prominent of which was Titus Lucretius Car.

Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC - 55 BC)
Lucretius fully identifies his views with the teachings of Epicurus. In his work “On the Nature of Things”, he masterfully explains, proves and propagates the views of the early representatives of the atomistic doctrine, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism both from earlier and contemporary opponents, giving at the same time the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only thing that exists. Where there is emptiness, so-called space, there is no matter; and where matter is stretched out, there is no emptiness and space in no way.
He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the whole body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.
Lucretius tries to explain the emergence of society in a natural way. He says that originally people lived in a "semi-savage state", not knowing fire and dwelling. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd is gradually turning into society. Like Epicurus, he believed that society (law, laws) arises as a product of mutual agreement of people: “Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, no longer wanting to cause lawlessness and enmity, and children and the female gender were taken under protection, showing gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although consent could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the agreement was faithfully fulfilled.
The materialism of Lucretius also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes the gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the concept of life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes.
Epicureanism remained in Roman society for a comparatively long time. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity became the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle began against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which, in the end, led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Skepticism
Skepticism is based on a position based on the doubt that there is any reliable criterion of truth. Skepticism is contradictory in nature, it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and immorality. The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).

Pyrrho and his philosophical views
According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, consists only in imperturbable calm, combined with the absence of suffering.
Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how they should be treated; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them.
Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, nor could it be argued that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can be countered with equal right by a statement that contradicts it.
From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho deduced the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude to things consists in refraining from any judgments. This answer predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and advantage arising from the abstinence from all kinds of judgments consists in equanimity or serenity. This condition, called ataraxia, based on the rejection of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest degree of bliss.
The efforts of Pyrrho, aimed at fettering human curiosity with doubt and slowing down the movement along the path of the progressive development of knowledge, were in vain. The future, which was presented to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came, and none of its warnings succeeded in stopping it.

Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism developed in the III-V centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the existence of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical direction that arose in the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social setting as Christianity. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).

Plotinus and his philosophical views
Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overreasonable divine principle. All forms of life depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the "rejection" of thought - ecstasy. Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this only true being.
Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, then the divine soul, and below all, nature.
Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. It is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external in relation to them.

Conclusion
In general, the philosophy of Ancient Rome had a huge impact on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization. The philosophy of Ancient Rome contained the beginnings of the main types of philosophical worldview, which were developed in all subsequent centuries. Many of the problems that ancient philosophers pondered have not lost their relevance to this day. The study of ancient philosophy gives us not only valuable information about the results of the reflections of outstanding thinkers, but also contributes to the development of more refined philosophical thinking.

Bibliography
Books

Electronic information resources

Other information resources

Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China. The doctrine of the Stoics is usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC - 65 AD) sees philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God.
Transcendence is a philosophical term that characterizes something that is fundamentally inaccessible to experimental knowledge or is not based on experience.
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC - 180 BC) - Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD e., in his reflections "To himself" says that "the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts."
Epicureanism is the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome (founder - Epicurus).
Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC - 55 BC) wrote the work "On the Nature of Things", where he defends the basic principles of atomism. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only thing that exists.
In 313 AD e. Christianity became the official state. religion, the struggle against Epicureanism began.
Skepticism - a doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth, the founder was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).
Three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how they should be treated; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them. 1 No answer can be given to the first question, 2 the philosophical attitude towards things consists in refraining from any kind of judgment, 3 the benefit and advantage arising from refraining from any kind of judgment consists in equanimity or serenity. This condition, called ataraxia, based on the rejection of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest degree of bliss.
Ataraxia - peace of mind, equanimity, serenity, according to some ancient Greek philosophers, achieved by a sage.
Neoplatonism developed in the 3rd-5th centuries. n. e., the founder was Ammonius Sakkas (175-242), and the most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).
Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is a supersensible, supernatural, overreasonable divine principle. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. It is for him a certain transition from the divine to the material.

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