Philosophical systems of India. Philosophy of Ancient India: main philosophical ideas and schools. Vedic period of Indian philosophy

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. This is another thread in a series of posts. on the basics of philosophy. In a previous article, we reviewed . As already mentioned, the science of philosophy arose simultaneously in different parts of the world - in Ancient Greece and in Ancient India and China around the 7th-6th centuries. BC. Often the philosophies of ancient India and ancient China are considered together, as they are very related and have had a great influence on each other. But still, I propose to consider the history of the philosophy of Ancient China in the next article.

The philosophy of ancient India was based on the texts contained in the Vedas, which were written in the most ancient language - Sanskrit. They consist of several collections written in the form of hymns. It is believed that the Vedas were compiled over a period of thousands of years. The Vedas were used for worship.

The first philosophical texts of India are the Upanishads (end of the 2nd millennium BC). The Upanishads are the interpretation of the Vedas.

Upanishads

The Upanishads formed the main Indian philosophical themes: the idea of ​​an infinite and one God, the doctrine of rebirth and karma. The One God is the incorporeal Brahman. Its manifestation - Atman - is the immortal, inner "I" of the world. The Atman is identical to the human soul. The goal of the human soul (the goal of the individual Atman) is to merge with the world Atman (the world soul). One who lives in recklessness and impurity will not be able to reach such a state and will enter the cycle of rebirths according to the combined result of his words, thoughts and deeds, according to the laws of karma.

The Upanishads are ancient Indian treatises of a philosophical and religious nature in philosophy. The oldest of them date back to the 8th century BC. The Upanishads reveal the main essence of the Vedas, which is why they are also called Vedanta.

In them, the Vedas have received the greatest development. The idea of ​​the connection of everything with everything, the theme of space and man, the search for connections, all this was reflected in them. The basis of everything that exists in them is the inexpressible Brahman, as a cosmic, impersonal principle and the basis of the whole world. Another central point is the idea of ​​the identity of man with Brahman, of karma as the law of action and samsara like a circle of suffering that a person needs to overcome.

Philosophical schools (systems) of ancient India

WITH 6th century BC the time of classical philosophical schools (systems) began. Distinguish orthodox schools(considered the Vedas the only source of Revelation) and unorthodox schools(they did not recognize the Vedas as the only authoritative source of knowledge).

Jainism and Buddhism referred to as unorthodox schools. Yoga and Samkhya, Vaisheshika and Nyaya, Vedanta and Mimamsa These are the six orthodox schools. I listed them in pairs because they are pair friendly.

Unorthodox schools

Jainism

Jainism is based on the tradition of hermitage (6th century BC). The basis of this system is the personality and it consists of two principles - material and spiritual. Karma binds them together.

The idea of ​​the rebirth of souls and karma led the Jains to the idea that all life on Earth has a soul - plants, animals and insects. Jainism preaches such a life so as not to harm all life on Earth.

Buddhism

Buddhism arose in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. Its creator Gautama, a prince from India, who later received the name Buddha, which means awakened in translation. He developed the concept of the way to get rid of suffering. This should be the main goal of the life of a person who wants to get liberation and go beyond the limits of samsara, the cycle of suffering and pain.

To break out of the circle of suffering (to enter nirvana), one must observe 5 commandments (Wikipedia) and engage in meditation, which calms the mind and makes the mind of a person more clear and not subject to desires. The extinction of desires leads to liberation and deliverance from the cycle of suffering.

Orthodox schools

Vedanta

Vedanta has been one of the most influential schools of Indian philosophy. The exact time of its appearance is not known, approximately - 2 c. BC e. The completion of the doctrine is attributed to the end of the 8th century AD. e. Vedanta is based on the interpretation of the Upanishads.

It is the basis of everything Brahman, which is one and infinite. The Atman of a person can cognize Brahman and then a person can become free.

Atman is the highest "I", the absolute, which is aware of its existence. Brahman is the cosmic, impersonal principle of everything that exists.

Mimansa

Mimamsa adjoins Vedanta and is a system that was engaged in explaining the rituals of the Vedas. The core was the idea of ​​duty, which was a sacrifice. The school reached its culmination in the 7th-8th centuries. It had an impact on strengthening the influence of Hinduism in India and reducing the importance of Buddhism.

Sankhya

This is the philosophy of dualism founded by Kapila. Two principles operate in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). According to her, the main basis of everything is matter. The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to divert spirit from matter. It was based on human experience and reflection.

Sankhya and Yoga are related. Sankhya is the theoretical basis for yoga. Yoga is a practical method for achieving liberation.

Yoga

Yoga. This system is based on practice. Only through practical exercises can a person achieve reunion with divine beginning. A lot of such yoga systems have been created, and they are still very famous all over the world. It is she who has become the most popular now in many countries, thanks to the complexes of physical exercises that make it possible to be healthy and not get sick.

Yoga differs from Samkhya in the belief that each person has a supreme personal Deity. With the help of asceticism, meditation, you can get rid of prakriti (from the material).

Nyaya

Nyaya was a teaching about various forms of thinking, about the rules for conducting a discussion. Therefore, its study was mandatory for everyone who was engaged in philosophizing. The problems of being in it were investigated through logical comprehension. The main goal of a person in this life is liberation.

Vaisheshika

Vaisheshika is a school related to the Nyaya school. According to this system, every thing is constantly changing, although there are elements in nature that are not subject to change - these are atoms. An important theme of the school is to classify the objects under consideration.

Vaisheshika is based on the objective knowability of the world. Adequate knowledge is the main goal of systematic thinking.

Books on the Philosophy of Ancient India

From Sankhya to Vedanta. Indian philosophy: darshans, categories, history. Chattopadhyaya D (2003). A professor at the University of Calcutta wrote this book specifically for Europeans who are just beginning to get acquainted with the philosophy of Ancient India.

Six systems of Indian philosophy. Müller Max (1995). The professor at Oxford University is an outstanding expert on Indian texts, he owns translations of the Upanishads and Buddhist texts. This book is referred to as a fundamental work on the philosophy and religion of India.

Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Chatterjee S. and Datta D (1954). The authors present the views of Indian philosophical schools briefly and in simple language.

Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important thing. VIDEO.

Summary

I think the article Philosophy of Ancient India - briefly, the most important" become useful to you. Did you know:

• about the main origins of the philosophy of ancient India - the ancient texts of the Vedas and Upanishads;
• about the main classical schools of Indian philosophy - orthodox (yoga, sankhya, vaisheshika, nyaya, vedanta, mimamsa) and unorthodox (jainism and Buddhism);
• O main feature philosophy of the Ancient East - about understanding the true purpose of a person and his place in the world (it was considered more important for a person to focus on the inner world than on the external circumstances of life).

I wish you all always a positive attitude for all your projects and plans!

1) Veda (Skt. Véda - “knowledge”, “teaching”) - a collection of ancient (25 thousand years BC) Hindu scriptures in Sanskrit according to the Shruti method (from what was heard).

2) Structure (shared the Vedas by the ancient Indian poet and sage Vyasa)

1. Samhitas (religious chants about rituals)

2. Brahmins (books written by the servants of Brahma)

3. Aranyaki (forest lyrics of hermits)

4. Upanishads (the main essence of the Vedas is stated (the concept of Brahman and the individual soul - Atman) - therefore they are also called "Vedanta" (end, completion of the Vedas) and they are the basis of Vedantic Hinduism)

Types of Upanishads: classical (7th century BC) and false (non-classical)

3) Key Ideas

The idea of ​​the absolute (the beginning of existence).

"The Absolute is Brahman":

Brahman - a living being, the father of all things, in its highest manifestations acts as a kind of universal Atman (immortal soul)

thought (thinking)

Prana (breath, energy)

Brahman created everything from itself .

Everything that exists contains Brahman (pantheism)

Life is eternal, because its source is Brahman.

Idea of ​​God.

· God is the first-born (born by Brahma). Gods exist. Asuras (negative) and Devas (positive)

The gods did not possess immortality at first. Immortality is an acquired quality as a result of evolution (the life of the Gods - cosmic cycles), after the creation of the drink of immortality "Holy Amrita"

3. The idea of ​​the immortality of the individual soul (Atman).

Atman is neither born nor dies

There is no death - life is endless

4. The idea of ​​eternity and the cycle of life (like the wheel of Samsara).

· Death as a change of life form.

Circulation: heavenly water, atma, earthly water (mortal)

5. The idea of ​​karma ("kar" in this case - action).

· Based on the universality of relations, the laws of cause and effect.

· Thought is the main determining factor of karma. “As our thoughts are, so we become” - Upanishad.

Every phenomenon has its causes and consequences. According to the law of karma, the consequences return to the one who performs the action.

Karma is inevitable, not identified with fate.

6. The idea of ​​many inhabited worlds that we can acquire by the law of karma.

Material (lower)

Spiritual (highest)

7. The idea of ​​a righteous path leading to merging with the absolute (Brahma) (yoga).

Yoga is the path of merging an individual soul with a deity, gaining Brahma, entering the path of immortality, gaining a higher state in which the senses, thought, mind are inactive, a person is concentrated.

4) School classification

1. Orthodox(the only, unconditional authority of the Vedas as the source of higher knowledge)

· Sankhya

Essence: there are two principles in the world: prakriti (matter) and purusha (spirit). The goal of Samkhya philosophy is to divert spirit from matter.

· Yoga

Essence: the goal is to control the mind through meditation (dhyana), realize the difference between reality and illusion and achieve liberation.

· Mimansa (early)

Essence: the goal is to clarify the nature of dharma, understood as the obligatory performance of a set of rituals performed in a certain way. The nature of dharma is not open to reasoning or observation.

· Mimansa (late) = Vedanta

Essence: mainly focused on self-realization - the individual's understanding of his original nature and the nature of the Absolute Truth - in its personal aspect as Bhagavan or in its impersonal aspect as Brahman.

· Nyaya

Essence: considers mainly the conditions of correct thinking and the means of knowing reality. Recognizes the existence of four independent sources of true knowledge: perception, inference, comparison and proof.

· Vaisheshika

Bottom line: while recognizing the Buddhist point of view on the sources of knowledge: perception and inference, Vaisheshika at the same time believes that souls and substances are indisputable facts. It does not associate itself with problems of theology.

2. Unorthodox(in addition to the Vedas, other sources of knowledge)

· Buddhism

Essence: The Buddha came to the conclusion that the cause of people's suffering is their own actions and to stop suffering, to achieve nirvana, you can practice self-restraint and meditation.

Four Noble Truths:

About suffering (throughout life)

The cause of suffering (the desire to satisfy needs)

Cessation of suffering (relinquishing desires)

middle way

· Jainism

Essence: Calls for spiritual improvement through the development of wisdom and self-control. The goal of Jainism is to discover the true nature of the human soul. Perfect perception, perfect knowledge and perfect conduct, known as the "Three Jewels of Jainism", are the path to the liberation of the human soul from samsara (the cycle of birth and death).

· Lokayata (Charvaka)

The bottom line: the universe and everything that exists happened naturally, without interference otherworldly forces. There are four elements: earth, water, fire and air. They are eternal and are the fundamental principle of all things.

Ticket 6: Philosophy of Ancient China: basic
philosophical ideas and schools.

Ancient Chinese philosophy arises and develops in the period from the 7th to the 3rd centuries BC. The Zhangguo period in the history of ancient China is often called the "golden age of Chinese philosophy". It was during this period that concepts and categories arose, which then became traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Ideas of Taoism

The main idea of ​​Taoism is the assertion that everything obeys the Tao, everything arises from the Tao and everything returns to the Tao. Tao is the universal Law and Absolute. Even the great Heaven follows the Tao. To know the Tao, to follow it, to merge with it - this is the meaning, purpose and happiness of life. Tao manifests itself through its emanation - de. If a person learns the Tao, follows it, then he will achieve immortality. For this you need:

Ø Firstly, the nourishment of the spirit: a person is an accumulation of numerous spirits - divine forces, to which heavenly spirits corresponded. Heavenly spirits keep track of the good and evil deeds of a person and determine the period of his life. Thus, the nourishment of the spirit is the performance of virtuous deeds.

Ø Secondly, body nutrition is necessary: ​​adherence to the strictest diet (the ideal was the ability to feed on one's own saliva and inhale the dew ether), physical and breathing exercises, and sexual practice.

Such a path to immortality was long and difficult, accessible not to every person. Therefore, there is a desire to simplify it by creating a miraculous elixir of immortality. Emperors and representatives of the nobility especially needed this. The first emperor who wished to achieve immortality with the help of an elixir was the famous Qin-shih-huangdi, who sent expeditions to distant lands to search for the components necessary for the elixir.

Philosophical schools

1. Taoism - the universe is a source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from a plant to a person, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves the people alone. Representatives of this period: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Zhuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wenzi, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan.

2. Confucianism (zhujia) - the ruler and his officials must rule the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the administration of a despotic centralized state were studied. Representatives: Confucius, Zengzi, ZiSi, Yuzho, Zi-gao, Mengzi, Xunzi.

3. Moism (mojia) - the meaning of the teaching was in the ideas of universal love (jian ai) and prosperity, everyone should take care of mutual benefit. Representatives: Mo Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang Tzu, Fu Dun.

4. Legalism - dealt with the problems of social theory and public administration. The idea of ​​universal equality. Representatives: Shen Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, ShanYang, Han Feizi; often referred to as Shen Dao as well.

5. School of names (Mingjia) - mismatch between the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-gun.

6. School "yin-yang" (yinyangjia) (natural philosophers). Yin is a heavy, dark, earthy, feminine principle. Yang is light, bright, heavenly, masculine. Their harmony is a condition for the normal existence of the world, and imbalance leads to natural disasters. Representatives: Zi-wei, Zouyan, ZhangTsang.

Ticket 7: Teaching about dao, de and wu weiLaozi.

The Tao Te Ching is the foundational treatise of the philosophy of Taoism. Most modern researchers date the Tao Te Ching to the 4th-3rd centuries. BC. Authorship is attributed to Lao Tzu (Li Er, Li Dan, Li Bo-Yan) - he lived at the end of the 7th - the first half of the 6th century. BC. (according to some sources, the date of birth is 604 BC). He was a princely official, in charge of the archive.

DAO: Tao is the “way”, the essence of all things and the total being of the universe.

Dao incorporeal and incapable sense perception It is everywhere and nowhere, formless and nameless, infinite and eternal, empty but inexhaustible. It is the progenitor of everything, including the gods.

Tao (according to the abstract) is the natural way, the law of all things.

DE: On the one hand, Te is what feeds Tao, makes it possible (opposite: Tao feeds Te, Tao is unlimited, Te is certain). This is a kind of universal force, a principle by which the Tao-way of things can take place.

Te - the art of properly managing life energy, correct behavior. But Te is not morality in the narrow sense. Te goes beyond common sense, encouraging a person to release the life force from the path of everyday life.

Te (according to the synopsis) - that which nourishes and nurtures the universal qualities, the attributes of Tao.

Lao Tzu o Te

"Creating and educating the existing; creating, not possessing what is created; setting in motion, not making efforts for it; leading, not considering oneself the ruler - this is what is called the deepest Te."

"A person with a higher Te does not strive to do good deeds, therefore he is virtuous; a person with a lower Te does not leave the intention to do good deeds, therefore he is not virtuous; a person with a higher Te is inactive and carries out non-action; a person with a lower Te is active, and his actions are deliberate ".

"Te appears only after the loss of Tao; philanthropy - after the loss of Te."

Wu-wei: Wu-wei is contemplative passivity. This word is often translated as "non-action". The most important quality of non-action is the absence of reasons for action. There is no reflection, no calculation, no desire. There are no intermediate steps at all between the inner nature of man and his action in the world. The action happens suddenly and, as a rule, reaches the goal in the shortest way, as it relies on the perception of the here and now. Such a world existence is typical only for enlightened people, whose mind is soft, disciplined and completely subordinate to the deep nature of man.

According to Lao Tzu, “If anyone wants to take over the world and manipulate it, he will fail. For the world is a sacred vessel that cannot be manipulated. If anyone wants to manipulate him, he will destroy him. If anyone wants to appropriate it, he will lose it.”

Wu Wei is not a complete renunciation of action. This is a rejection of emotional involvement in the action, and only as a result - the minimization of the actions performed.

Ticket 8: Ancient philosophy: features
development and basic schools.

Ancient philosophy arises in the 7th - 8th centuries. BC. during the formation of the slave society. It arises and develops in large economic centers and city-states located at the crossroads of important trade routes.

Ancient philosophy arises on the basis of intensive processing of mythological ideas about the world and man.

The mythological idea and the religious idea associated with it are gradually giving way to philosophy, which is distinguished by the desire for a rational theoretical justification of the positive knowledge that the first philosophers (Babylon, Ancient Egypt) possessed.

The main methods of this philosophy are observation and reflection on the results of observations in nature.

Three stages of development ancient philosophy:

Ø Early period (Pre-Socratic) (VII-first half of the 5th century BC) - Pythagorean, Miletus, Elean schools, school of ancient dialectics (Heraclitus)

Ø classical period(V - IV centuries BC) - Schools of Aristotle, Anaxagoras, Empedocles and Plato, schools of sophists and atomists

Ø The Age of Hellenism (IV century BC - 528 BC) - Eclecticism, Skepticism, Epicurus Philosophy, Skepticism, Hedonism.

Description of schools:

1. Pythagorean. Pythagoras of Samos, Empedocles, Philolaus. Everything is like a number and can be expressed mathematically. The celestial spheres revolve around the Central Fire.

2. Elean. Parmenides, Zeno, Melisse. The focus is on life. Only it exists - there is no non-existence at all. Thinking and being are one and the same. Being fills everything, it has nowhere to move and it is impossible to share.

3. Milesian. Thales of Miletus, Anaximander, Anaximenes. On the basis of the position “something does not arise from nothing” (the modern Law of Conservation), they assumed the existence of a certain fundamental principle of everything. Thales called it water, Anaximenes called it air, and Anaximander called it apeiron. The Milesians assumed the animation of the world, everything has a soul, it’s just that in the “animate” it is more, and in the “inanimate” it is less, but it permeates everything.

4. School of Heraclitus. Heraclitus of Ephesus did not have direct students, but had many followers at all times. He considered the world to be an ever-moving product of fire (his phrase is “everything flows, everything changes”), and the struggle and war of opposites is the cause of all change. Heraclitus was called Gloomy for the gloominess of his views, the vision of war in everything.

5. School of Aristotle. The soul is the entelechy of the body (entelechy is an internal force that contains the ultimate goal and result). The origin of movement is God.

6. School of Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras proclaimed that the basis of everything are small "seeds" (Aristotle later called them "homeomeria"). There are countless types of them, and a certain global Mind organizes them into the bodies of the visible world. Interestingly, Anaxagoras tried to explain phenomena like eclipses and earthquakes by natural causes, and for this he was convicted of insulting the gods and sentenced to death, but was saved through the efforts of his friend and student Pericles.

7. School of Empedocles. Empedocles believed that the world is based on four elements - fire, water, air and earth, and everything is obtained by mixing these elements, or "roots". Specifically, a bone is made up of two parts water, two parts earth, and four parts fire. But the "roots" are passive principles, and the active principles are Love and Hate, the interaction and correlation of which determines all changes.

8. School of Plato. Plato believed the soul to be immortal, unlike the body, and singled out three principles in it: Reasonable, Volitional and Passionate. He considered the main method of philosophy to be dialectics (in the sense of a constructive dispute).

9. School of sophists. Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodik and others. Representatives of the school had different moral and political views. They were united by the idea that any thing can be described in different ways, a penchant for philosophical play on words and the creation of paradoxes, the confidence that everything is relative, there is nothing absolute, and man is the measure of all things. Many were atheists and agnostics.

10. School of atomists. Leucippus stood at the origins of the school of atomists, his teaching was developed by Democritus. This amazing sage said that all bodies consist of the smallest particles - atoms, between which there is emptiness. He also implied the presence in a person of a soul, which is also a collection of special atoms and is mortal with the body. "Only in the general opinion there is color, in the opinion - sweet, in the opinion - bitter, but in reality there are only atoms and emptiness."

11. Eclecticism. Its representatives, Cicero, Varro, and others, tried to create a perfect philosophical system based on a combination of existing systems, choosing from them the most reasonable, in their opinion, conclusions. In some ways, the general acceptance of such a combinative system marks the decline of philosophical thought.

12. Stoicism. The teachings of Zeno of Kita (not the one in Elea, another). The doctrine of predestination, which must be followed, suppressing passions in oneself. Pleasure, aversion, lust and fear must be rejected. The Stoic ideal is the imperturbable sage. Such stars as Seneca and Marcus Aurelius, the emperor-philosopher, belonged to the school.

13. Skepticism. Pyrrho, Enisidem. The teaching of skeptics is that one cannot be sure of the existence of anything. And since it is impossible to be sure of the existence of a thing, then it must be treated as something apparent, calmly and calmly. Ten Reasons for a Skeptical Attitude (Ten Skeptical Paths of Enisedem).

14. Hedonism. The doctrine that the main thing in life and the highest good is pleasure.

15. Epicureanism. A special case of hedonism. "Pleasure is the highest good." This is a teaching that did not aim to find the truth, but only the practical side of happiness. Epicurus' "fourfold remedy": do not be afraid of the gods, do not be afraid of death, the good is easily achievable, the evil is easily endured.

There are several periods in the history of Indian philosophy, the division into which is in itself rather arbitrary. Let us dwell first and foremost on the main ones, which laid the foundation for all Indian philosophy and constituted the philosophical classics of Indian thought and its entire culture, namely, Vedic and epic periods.

Philosophy of the Vedic period.

The main source of information about this period is an extensive complex of literary monuments, united by the common name Veda(literally "knowledge", "knowledge") and written in the ancient Indian language Sanskrit (the so-called Vedic Sanskrit).

The Vedas consist of four collections of hymns (samhitas), chants, magic spells, prayers, etc.: Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaveda (or Atharvangirasa). Each of these collections (usually known as the Vedas proper) over time acquired various comments and additions of a ritual, magical, philosophical order - Brahmans, Aranyakas, Upanishads. Actually, the philosophical views of ancient India were most fully reflected in the Upanishads.

All Vedic texts are considered sacred books, divine revelation like the Bible, although in their main features they were probably formed by the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. Brahmins were considered to be the true experts and interpreters of the Vedas.

Philosophy of the Upanishads. Originally, the Upanishads meant sitting around a teacher for the purpose of learning the truth. Then the term came to mean a secret teaching. In the Upanishads, the themes of the Vedas develop: the idea of ​​the unity of all things, cosmological themes, the search for cause-and-effect relationships of phenomena, etc. For example, such questions were posed as: “Where is the sun at night?”, “Where do the stars disappear during the day?” etc. But unlike previous texts, the Upanishads focus on the inner side of being and phenomena rather than the outer side. At the same time, the main attention is paid to a person, his knowledge and, above all, moral perfection. “Who are we?”, “Where did we come from?”, “Where are we going?” These are the characteristic questions of the Upanishads.

As the fundamental principle of being in the Upanishads is Brahman- a universal, impersonal world soul, a spiritual principle from which the whole world arises with all its elements. This universality of the brahman is achieved through the knowledge of himself. Brahman is identical and at the same time opposed atman- the individual soul, the subjective spiritual principle, "I".

However, brahman and atman identical, the brahman in the individual is aware of himself and thereby passes into the atman, becomes it. In turn, at the highest level of the intuitive "I", when the subject and object are merged together, the atman merges with the brahman. Thus, we have before us an example of dialectical thinking, in particular, the statement identities of opposites: brahman as the highest objective principle and atman as the subjective spiritual principle. The idea of ​​the identity of brahman and atman, object and subject, world soul and individual soul also means the possibility of their mutual transition.

The doctrine of brahman and atman is the central point of the Upanishads, which affirms the identity of the existence of an individual person with the universal essence of the world. Related to this is the doctrine of samsara(circle of life) and karma(law of retribution) in the Upanishads. In the doctrine of samsara, human life is understood as a certain form of endless rebirth. And the future birth of an individual is determined by the law of karma. The future of a person is the result of those deeds and deeds that a person performed in previous lives. And only one who has led a decent life can expect to be born in future life as a representative of the highest varna (estate): a brahmin (priest), a kshatriya (a warrior or a representative of power) or a vaishya (farmer, artisan or merchant). Those who led an unrighteous way of life, in the future, are destined for the fate of a member of the lower varna - a sudra (commoner) or even worse: his atman can get into the body of an animal.

Therefore, the most important task of man and the main category of the Upanishads is release (moksha) him from the "world of objects and passions", constant moral perfection. This liberation is realized through the dissolution of atman in brahman, the knowledge of the identity of one's individual soul with the world soul. Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, each person is the "blacksmith" of his own happiness, his entire fate depends on his own behavior.

As already mentioned, knowledge and self-knowledge is one of the most important themes and problems of the Upanishads. But it is primarily not about sensual and not even about rational cognition. Genuine, most true knowledge consists in the deepest and most complete union and awareness of the identity of atman and brahman. And only those who are able to realize this identity are freed from the endless series of rebirths of samsara. The soul of such a person merges with the Brahman and remains in it forever. At the same time, she is freed from the influence of karma. This is the highest goal and the truest path - "path of the gods" (devayana), as opposed to the usual way - "Paths of the Fathers" (Pitryanas). Devayana is achieved through austerity and higher knowledge.

Thus, in the philosophy of the Upanishads, a person (unlike, for example, Christianity or Islam) is not considered in relationship with other people or with humanity as a whole. And human life itself is thought differently here. Man is not the "crown of creation" of God, he is also not the owner of one single life. His life is an endless chain of rebirths. But he has the ability to break the circle of samsara, get out of the chain of births and achieve the highest goal - release from being. Life, therefore, is seen as a long process of changing different lives, and they must be lived in such a way as to ultimately leave samsara, that is, get rid of life.

Hence the meaning of ancient Indian philosophy, and the nature of the worldview of the Indians was different than in the West. It was aimed not at changing the external conditions of existence - nature and society, but at self improvement. In other words, she was not extroverted, but introverted.

In addition, the term “philosophy” itself, as wisdom that arose within the framework of Western European culture, is of little use for designating the system of views and worldview of the thinkers of Ancient India. In this context, Hegel apparently did not go far from the truth when he wrote that "philosophy in the proper sense begins in the West" 1 . Although it would be wrong to deny philosophy in general in the ancient Eastern cultural tradition. It’s just that here wisdom is associated primarily not with the substantiation of theoretical concepts aimed at finding truth in an empirical or rational way, but with higher knowledge and self-knowledge through asceticism, direct comprehension of Brahman and individual identity with it. The path to truth is the path of moral perfection of a person, and not the path of theoretical knowledge.

The Upanishads had a great influence on the further development of the philosophical thought of India. Thus, the doctrine of samsara and karma becomes one of the main ones for the subsequent development of all religious and philosophical trends in India. The Upanishads had a great influence, in particular, on various philosophical systems of Hinduism and Buddhism. Their influence is also found in the views of such major thinkers as Rammokhon Raya, Gandhi, Schopenhauer and others.

Philosophy of the epic period. The name "epic period" (from the word "epos") is due to the fact that at this time " Ramayana" And " Mahabharata” serve as a means of expressing the heroic and divine in human relations. During this period, the ideas of the Upanishads are heavily criticized in " Bhagavad Gita”(one of the books of the Mahabharata).

This period in the development of Indian philosophy begins in the 6th century. BC e., when significant changes take place in Indian society: agricultural and handicraft production develops, social differentiation increases, the institute of tribal power loses its influence and the power of the monarchy increases. At the same time, changes are taking place in the worldview of Indian society. In particular, criticism of Vedic Brahminism is on the rise. Intuition gives way to research, religion to philosophy. Within philosophy itself, various, including opposite and warring schools and systems appear, which reflected the real contradictions of that time.

Unorthodox Schools in Indian Philosophy. Among the many adherents of new views who rebelled against the authority of the Vedas, one should first of all name representatives of such systems as: charvaka(materialists) Jainism, Buddhism. All of them belong to unorthodox schools of Indian philosophy.

Charvak is a materialistic teaching in Ancient and Medieval India. A late version of a related philosophical concept - lokayats, with which it is sometimes generally identified. No writings of this school have been preserved, and the statements of representatives of other schools serve as a source of knowledge about this teaching.

Charvaka denies the concept of brahman, atman, samsara and karma. The basis of everything that exists here is matter in the form of four primary elements: earth, water, fire and air. Both life and consciousness are considered as derivatives of these material primary elements. Matter can think. Death is the end of everything. The name "lokayata" corresponds to the essence and content of this teaching - only this world, or loka, exists. That is why the materialists are called Lokayatikas. They are also called Charvaks, after the founder of this theory - Charvak.

The ontological essence of this doctrine corresponds to the theory of knowledge. Its basis is sensory perception peace. Only that which is known through direct perception is true. Therefore, for the existence of another world, not perceived by the senses, there are no grounds. No other world can simply exist. Therefore, religion is a foolish delusion. Faith in God and other world is, from the point of view of representatives of this school, a sign of stupidity, weakness, cowardice.

The ethical concept of the Charvakas is based on unlimited enjoyment - hedonism(from the Greek hedone - pleasure). Recognizing only such realities of life as suffering and pleasure within the framework of the sensual being of a person, this school considers wealth and pleasure to be the goals of human existence. The motto of the representatives of this school is to eat, drink and enjoy this life today, because death always comes to everyone. "While life is still yours, live joyfully: no one can escape the piercing gaze of death." This theory, therefore, affirms selfishness and preaches earthly human desires. All moral standards, according to this teaching, are only human conventions, which should not be paid attention to.

Assessing the philosophy of the materialists, we can say that she did a lot to criticize the old religion and philosophy, to debunk the authority of the Vedas, their untruth and inconsistency.

« Philosophy of the Charvaks, - writes the largest modern philosopher of India S. Radhakrishnan, - represents a fanatical effort to liberate her contemporary generation from the burden of the past that weighed on them. The elimination of dogmatism that took place with the help of this philosophy was necessary in order to make room for the constructive efforts of speculation." 1 .

At the same time, this philosophy was a one-sided worldview that denied the role of intellect, reason in cognition. Therefore, from her point of view, it was impossible to explain where abstract, universal ideas and moral ideals come from. The result of this one-sidedness was nihilism, skepticism and subjectivism. Since the sense organs belong to an individual person, then, consequently, each person can have only his own truth. The result of this one-sidedness is their denial of higher moral goals and values.

However, despite these obvious and serious shortcomings, the Charvaka school laid the foundation for criticism of the Brahmanist trend in Indian philosophy, undermined the authority of the Vedas and had a significant impact on the further development of the philosophical thought of India.

Jainism . Its founder is considered to be Mahavira Vardhamana (VI century BC). He also received the name Jina, which means the Conqueror (meaning the victory over the cycle of rebirths). At the center of this direction is the being of the individual. The essence of personality, from the point of view of Jainism, is dualistic: spiritual (jiva) And material (adjiva). The link between jiva and ajiva is karma. However, karma itself is understood here, in contrast to the Upanishads, as subtle matter, and not as the law of retribution. This combination of inanimate, rough matter with the soul through karma leads to the emergence of personality. And karma constantly accompanies the soul in an endless chain of rebirths.

The human soul is forced to wander, constantly being reborn, as long as it is connected with subtle matter. But right knowledge and asceticism can help her to get rid of the material world (ajiva). In this case, the soul passes to the higher sphere, where it constantly and abides in pure spirituality. This is because the jiva exists in two forms of existence: imperfect and perfect. In the first case, it is in conjunction with matter and in a state suffering. In the second - jiva freed up from this connection and becomes free, able to manage its own being. In this case, she goes into a state of bliss - nirvana, the highest state of mind when the ultimate goal is reached.

Accordingly, Jainism recognizes two kinds of knowledge: imperfect based on experience and reason, and perfect which is based on intuition and comprehends the truth by its direct discretion. The second is available only to those who have freed themselves from the dependence of the material world (ajiva). At the same time, Jainism recognizes the relativity of knowledge and the possibility of multiple points of view when considering a subject. Connected with this is his dialectical method.

A characteristic feature of the philosophical and ethical concept of Jainism is the development of rules and norms of human behavior and the requirement for their strict observance. The ethical education of a personality is a decisive factor in the transition of a person's being from an imperfect state to a perfect one. And although karma decides everything, our real life which is in our own power can change the impact of the past. And with the help of excessive efforts, we can also avoid the effects of karma. Therefore, in the teachings of the Jains there is no absolute fatalism, as it may seem at first glance.

The correct life of a person is associated with ascetic behavior, which was practiced in India by many great saints who even committed themselves to death. Only asceticism leads to the cessation of rebirth and to the liberation of the soul from samsara. Moreover, liberation is individual. Everyone is liberated on their own. However, the ethics of Jainism, although egocentric, is far from egoistic in nature, as in the teachings of the Charvaks. Egoism and individualism involve the opposition of the individual to the social environment, the assertion of one's own interests at the expense of other people. Meanwhile, the basic ethical principles of Jainism: estrangement from worldly wealth, fuss, passions, respect for all living beings, etc. little compatible with egoism and individualism.

It should be noted that the philosophy of Jainism retains its influence in India today.

Buddhism just like Jainism, it arose in the VI century. BC e. Its founder is an Indian prince Siddhartha Gautama, later named buddha(awakened, enlightened), because after many years of asceticism and asceticism he reached awakening, that is, he came to an understanding of the correct path of life, extreme.

A characteristic feature of this doctrine is its ethical and practical orientation, and the central question that interests him is personality being. Buddhism is based on the "Four Noble Truths":

the existence of man from birth to death is inextricably linked with suffering;

there is a cause of suffering, which is the thirst for being (striving for life), leading through joys and passions to rebirth;

there is a liberation from suffering, the elimination of the causes of suffering, i.e. elimination of this thirst for being;

exists path, leading to liberation from suffering, which rejects both a life devoted only to sensual pleasures, and the path of asceticism and self-torture. This is precisely the Buddhist principle of the so-called middle path, which recommends avoiding extremes.

Liberation from suffering as the ultimate goal of being a person is, first of all, the destruction of desires, more precisely, the quenching of their passion. Related to this is the most important concept of Buddhism in the moral sphere - the concept tolerance (tolerance) and relativity. According to her, the matter lies not in some obligatory moral prescriptions, but in harming others. This is the main principle of personality behavior, which is based on a feeling of kindness and perfect satisfaction.

Its concept is organically connected with the ethics of Buddhism. knowledge. Cognition here is a necessary way and means to achieve the ultimate goal of being a person. In Buddhism, the distinction between sensual and rational forms of cognition is eliminated and the practice of meditation(from lat. rneditatio - concentrated reflection) - in-depth mental concentration and detachment from external objects and internal experiences. The result of this is direct experience of the integrity of being, complete introspection and self-satisfaction. A state of absolute freedom and independence of the inner being of the individual is achieved, which is exactly the same as the extinction of desires. It is release, or nirvana- a state of supreme bliss, the ultimate goal of a person's aspirations and his being, characterized by detachment from life's worries and desires. This does not imply the death of a person, but his exit from the cycle of rebirths, liberation from samsara and merging with the deity.

Practice meditation constitutes the essence of Buddhist insight into life. Like prayer in Christianity, meditation is at the heart of Buddhism. Its ultimate goal is enlightenment, or the state of nirvana. It should be borne in mind that in the system of Buddhism the principle of absolute autonomy of the individual, his independence from the environment, is decisive. All connections of a person with the real world, including social, Buddhism regards as negative and generally harmful to humans. Hence the need for liberation from imperfect real existence, from external objects and feelings. Related to this is the conviction of most Buddhists that the passions that the human body generates and the anxiety associated with it must be overcome. The main way to do this is to achieve nirvana.

Thus, the philosophy of Buddhism, like that of Jainism, is egocentric and introvertive.

Orthodox schools in ancient Indian philosophy Unlike non-orthodox schools (Charvaks, Jainism, Buddhism), in the history of ancient Indian philosophy, there were also orthodox schools that did not deny the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, relied on them. Consider the main philosophical ideas of these schools

Vedanta(completion of the Vedas) - the most influential system, the most important philosophical basis of Hinduism. It recognizes the Brahman as the absolute spiritual essence of the world. Separate souls (atmans) through the knowledge or love of God achieve salvation, uniting with God. The way out of the cycle of births (samsara) is to consider everything that exists from the point of view of the highest truth; in the knowledge of the truth that the external world surrounding a person is an illusory world, and the true unchanging reality is brahman, with which the atman is identified. The main way to achieve this true knowledge is morality and meditation, which means intense reflection on the problems of the Vedas.

The help of the teacher plays an important role in this. Therefore, one of the requirements of Vedanta is the obedient following of the teacher by the student, constant reflection on the truths of Vedanta with the aim of directly and constantly contemplating the truth. Knowledge frees the soul. Ignorance, on the contrary, enslaves her, strengthens the desire for sensual pleasures. The study of Vedanta is the main means of liberation of the soul.

Mimansa(reflection, study of the Vedic text on sacrifices). This system concerns the explanation of the ritual of the Vedas. The teaching of the Vedas here is closely associated with dharma - the idea of ​​duty, the fulfillment of which involves, first of all, sacrifice. It is the fulfillment of one's duty that leads to a gradual redemption from karma and to liberation as the cessation of rebirth and suffering.

Sankhya(number, enumeration) - it is based not directly on the text of the Vedas, but on independent experience and reflection. In this regard, Samkhya differs from Vedanta and Mimamsa. The teaching of this school expresses the point of view according to which the root cause of the world is matter, nature (prakrta). Along with nature, existence is also recognized absolute soul (purusha). It is because of its presence in all things that the things themselves exist. When prakriti and purusha are combined, the original principles of the world arise, both material (water, air, earth, etc.) and spiritual (intellect, self-consciousness, etc.).

Thus, Samkhya is dualistic trend in Hindu philosophy.

Yoga(tension, deep reflection, contemplation). The philosophy of this school is aimed at practical psychological training. Its theoretical basis is Samkhya, although yoga also recognizes a personal god. A large place in this system is occupied by the explanation of the rules of mental training, the successive steps of which are: self-observation ( pit), mastery of breathing in certain positions (postures) of the body ( asana), isolation of feelings from external influences ( pratyahara), concentration of thought ( dharana), meditation ( dhyana), rejection state ( samadhi). At the last stage, the liberation of the soul from the body shell is achieved, the fetters of samsara and karma are broken. The ethical norms of yoga are associated with the formation of a highly moral personality.

Vaisheshika. At an early stage of development, this system contains pronounced materialistic moments. According to her, all things are constantly changing, but they also contain stable elements - spherical atoms. Atoms are eternal, not created by anyone and multi-qualitative (17 qualities of atoms). From them, various animate and inanimate objects arise. The world, although it consists of atoms, the driving force behind its development is God, who acts in accordance with the law of karma.

Nyaya(rule, logic) - the doctrine of the forms of thinking. In this system, the main thing is the study of metaphysical problems with the help of logic. Nyaya comes from liberation as the ultimate goal human life. According to representatives of this school, the conditions and methods of true knowledge as a means of achieving liberation can be determined with the help of logic and its laws. Liberation itself is understood as the cessation of the impact of negative factors of suffering.

The most significant and famous book not only of the epic period, but of the entire history of India is considered to be the Bhagavad Gita, often called simply the Gita. It forms part of the sixth book of the Mahabharata. "Bhagavad Gita" in translation means the song of Bhagavata, that is, God krishna, or divine song. It was written around the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. and expressed the need of the masses to replace the old religion of the Upanishads, with its meager abstractions and vague Absolute at the head, with a less abstract and formal one.

The Bhagavad Gita, with its living personal god (Krishna), successfully completed this task and laid the foundation for a new direction of religious thought - Hinduism. It should be borne in mind that the philosophy of the Gita in no way denies, as already mentioned, the authority of the Vedas, but, on the contrary, is significantly influenced by the Upanishads. Moreover, the very philosophical basis of the Gita is taken from the Upanishads. Acceptability for the broad masses of the religious and philosophical basis of Hinduism led to the fact that by the beginning of the new era it had won a decisive influence in the ideological sphere of Indian society.

According to the Bhagavad Gita, the ever-changing natural, material reality is not the primary reality - prakriti. Primal, eternal and unchanging being is the supreme Brahman. One should not grieve about death, for it is not extinction. Although the individual form of human existence can change, the essence of a person is not destroyed even after death, that is, the atman of a person remains unchanged, even if the body has become dust. In the spirit of the Upanishads, the Gita identifies two principles - Brahman And atman. Behind the mortal body is the atman, behind the transient objects of the world is the brahman. These two principles are one and identical in nature. The main object of knowledge in the Bhagavad Gita is the supreme Brahman, which has neither beginning nor end. Knowing it, a person becomes immortal.

In form, the Gita is a dialogue between the epic hero Arjuna and the god Krishna, who in the plot acts as Arjuna's charioteer and mentor. The main meaning of the book is that Krishna embodies the highest divine principle of Hinduism, and the book itself is its philosophical basis. Unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita pays more attention to moral issues and is distinguished by an emotional character. The dialogue between Arjuna and the god Krishna takes place on the eve of the decisive battle, when the commander Arjuna is in doubt whether he has the right to kill his relatives. He is thus in a situation where he must make a decisive moral choice. This choice, connected with the clarification of one's place in the moral world, is the main question that confronts the hero of the book and every person. The main problem to be solved is based on the realization of a deep moral contradiction between the practical duty of a person and higher moral requirements.

Therefore, unlike the Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita pays attention not to the external, ritual factors of achieving the moral world order (sacrifice), but to the inner moral freedom of the individual. To acquire it, sacrifices are not enough, thanks to which only rich people can win the favor of the gods. The acquisition of inner freedom is achieved by renunciation of external, sensual claims and temptations that lie in wait for a person at every step. In this regard, the book develops the doctrine of yoga- one of the directions in Indian thought, which has developed a whole range of techniques, thanks to which a special state of mind, mental balance is achieved. Although it should be borne in mind that the roots of yoga are very ancient, and yoga itself forms a common element of most ancient Indian systems. In the "Bhagavad Gita" yoga just acts as a method of mental education, which allows you to get rid of and cleanse yourself of all kinds of delusions and to know the true reality, the primary being is brahman, the eternal spirit that forms the basis of everything that exists.

The protagonist of the Gita strives to find a moral justification for his actions in the deepest foundations of the eternal spirit - Brahman. To achieve Brahman, an ascetic renunciation of everything transient, selfish aspirations, and sensual desires is required. But on the other hand, the rejection of this is the way to gain true freedom and achieve absolute value. The true battlefield of Arjuna is the life of his own soul and it is necessary to overcome that which hinders its true development. He is trying, not succumbing to temptations and subjugating passions, to win the true kingdom of man - true freedom. Achieving it is not an easy task. It requires austerity, suffering and self-denial.

PHILOSOPHY IN INDIA. The question of whether an equivalent of the general concept of “philosophia” existed in India at all, and if so, what specific term of Indian culture corresponded to it, is a traditional subject of discussion in Indology. G. Jacobi, and after him O. Strausse, D. P. Chattopadhyaya, A. Warder saw this equivalent in the term "anvlksikl" (lit. - research), while M. Winternitz, W. Ruben, G. von Glasenapp, P.

Indian philosophy

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY is one of the main components of world philosophy, the history of which covers more than two and a half millennia. I.F. It is characterized by a distinctly expressed originality, which is largely due to its origin and general cultural foundations. (Due to the recognition of the idea of ​​the eternity of the cyclically reproducing world social process, the philosophy of history proper did not develop in I.F.

Indian Philosophy (Kirilenko, Shevtsov)

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY - part of world philosophy, expressing the originality of national life, the style of thinking of peoples India. Its origins are in the ancient sacred texts, the compilation of which continued from the 2nd millennium BC. according to the VI century. BC. 1028 hymns of the "Rig Veda", the oldest part of the collection of texts "Veda" (Skt. "Veda" - knowledge, knowledge) give full view about ancient religious philosophical views peoples of ancient India.

Indian philosophy of the Middle Ages

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. The philosophical thought of early medieval India was closely connected with religious views. However, philosophy has already begun to turn into an independent branch of knowledge with its own research methods, although irrationality, mysticism, yogic meditation continue to characterize some of its schools. In the early Middle Ages, the final formation of the classical six systems of Indian philosophy takes place: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta. These systems were considered orthodox because they recognized the authority of the Vedas.

Indian Philosophy (Frolov)

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY. Philosophy in India arose out of one of the most ancient human civilizations; its thousand-year traditions dating back to the 15th-10th centuries. BC e., have survived to the present day. In the history of Indian philosophy, four periods are usually distinguished: 1) Vedic period; 2) classical, or Brahmin-Buddhist, period - from the 6th century. BC e. up to 10 c. n. e.; 3) postclassical - 10-18 centuries; 4) new modern Indian philosophy.

Indian Philosophy (Kuznetsov)

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY - a set of theoretical teachings about the world, man and various forms of his relationship with the world and other people (cognitive, social, moral, aesthetic, etc.), developed in India from the 6th century BC. BC. and existing today. Being self-consciousness and the spiritual basis of Indian culture, I.f. receives a distinctive character from the latter and gives rise to a specific system of life values ​​that, according to many modern philosophers, is capable of correcting the orientations of the deadlocked Western technogenic civilization(See, for example, the collection: Modern India and the West. A Study of the Interaction of their Civilizations. London - N. Y. - Toronto, 1968. P. 93). Among the historical facts that form the historical and cultural context for the emergence of philosophical thought in India, one can note, firstly, that theoretical thinking appears here earlier than philosophy (in ancient Greece and China, they develop almost simultaneously). As the Russian Indologist V.K. Shokhin, the first two methods of theorizing "dialectics (criticism of judgments) and analytics (systematization of concepts) are applied in India primarily to subjects that are not yet philosophical, and only then to worldview problems"...

Approximately, in the sixth century BC, a separate science appeared - philosophy, due to difficult to explain and mysterious circumstances, simultaneously arose in different and opposite places of the continent - ancient greece, India and Ancient China. From there, the development of human nirva takes place, through a different explanation of the mythological concepts of cultures. This period of development of philosophical teachings, in the indicated centers of civilizations, forms the latest history and a different interpretation of mythology, a rethinking of past attitudes of values ​​and thoughts.

Philosophy in India laid the foundation for the emergence of philosophical Indian knowledge, which arose BC in the middle of the 1st millennium. The initial "steps" of a person in an attempt to comprehend himself, the world and outer space, living and inanimate nature, led to progress in the development of the human mind, awareness and reason, contributed to evolution and differentiation from nature.

Understanding the connection of a common culture with the circumstances and events of the past era lies at the very essence of philosophy. The game of the mind, thinking in abstract concepts and the spiritual power of rational-conceptual comprehension of the root causes of everything that exists, which has a global impact on the world course of events, is philosophy.

Taking part in the formation of social ideals, value-worldview and methodological principles, philosophy reminds a person of the social and practical importance of common ideas about the world, raising the question before the thinker about the moral principles of being. The congenial Eastern philosophical teachings of India and China had common points and significant differences that had an important impact on the development of the cultures of India and China, as well as the peoples in contact with them.

A brief summary of ancient Indian philosophy will tell about many events of the era, about the interests and faith of other peoples, giving a great chance to enrich your own horizons. The foundation of Indian philosophy is occupied scriptures- Vedas and Upanishads (notes) to the Vedas. In the Indo-Aryan oriental culture, these texts represent the oldest monument of knowledge and teachings accumulated over all times. There are suggestions that the Vedas were not created by anyone, but always existed as the truth, due to which the scriptures did not contain erroneous information. Most of them are written in Sanskrit, a mystical and perfect language. It is believed that with the help of Sanskrit, the universe comes into contact with a person, showing the way to God. Cosmic truths are presented in the partial records of the Vedas. The adapted part of the Smriti scriptures, including the Mahabharata and Ramayana, is recommended for people who are not so gifted, such as workers, women and representatives of the lower castes, while the other part of the Vedas, Shrudi, is feasible only for initiates.

Vedic period of Indian philosophy

The key source of information about the Vedic stage is the Vedas (translated from Sanskrit "Veda" - "knowledge", "teaching" or "knowledge").

The philosophy of ancient India includes three stages:

1. Vedic - 15 - 5 centuries BC;
2. Classic - 5-10 centuries BC;
3. Hindu - from the 10th century BC.

But in this article you will learn about the Vedic period, the most significant and absolute. Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has continuously taken root and shaped the values ​​of society. According to established traditions, the Vedas include four collections of Vedic literature, later overgrown with explanations and additions of ritual, magical and philosophical orders (prayers, magic spells, hymns and chants):

1. "Samhita";
2. "Brahmins";
3. "Aranyaki";
4. "Upanishads".

The gods differed from people in omniscience, according to the Vedas, therefore knowledge was “recognized” and “seen”, because it was endowed with a visual nature. Such a division reflects the historical sequence of the development of Indian literature. The oldest collection is the "Samhitas", while the last three collections are the following explanation, comments on the Vedas and their additions. As a result, in the subtle literary sense, the Samhitas are the Vedas. Thus, the Samhitas include 4 original hymns: Rigveda (authoritarian knowledge), Samaveda (Veda of chants), Yajurveda (scriptures about sacrifices) and Atharvaveda (knowledge of magic spells), borrowing texts from Rigveda. Scientists studying Indian philosophical teachings believe that at the time of the formation Indian Vedas, throughout the valley of the majestic Ganges, society was divided into classes, but this could not be called slave ownership. The social difference between people only increased social inequality, and marked the beginning of the organization of varnas or castes (differences in position in society, privileges and roles): brahmins, kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. The Brahmins were priests; Kshatriyas - warriors who made up the highest social castes; Vaishyas - were artisans, farmers and merchants; Shudras - represented the lowest classes - servants and hired workers. Then came the Indian state. The deepest reflection in the philosophical views of ancient India reflected the Upanishads.

Upanishads

The main philosophical part of the Vedas are the Upanishads. The literal translation from Sanskrit "upa-ni-shad" means "sitting at the teacher's feet." The Upanishads are a secret teaching that cannot be made public to a large number of people. The text contained in the Upanishads is a presentation of heterogeneous philosophical reflections in which it is possible to focus on a number of issues: adhyajna (sacrifice), adhyatma (human microcosm) and adhidaivata (deified macrocosm); questions: “What is the position of the sun at night?”, “Where are the stars during the day?” and others. In the Upanishads, the central element is the parallels between the phenomena of the microcosm and the macrocosm, ideas about the unity of the existing. The hidden and deep foundations of the microcosm "Atman" and the macrocosm "Brahman" are revealed, the study of conditioning and expressions. The basis of the Upanishads is generated by the external and internal sides of being, surrounding human comprehension of knowledge and moral perfection with attention, posing the characteristic questions of the Upanishads - "Who are we, where did we come from and where are we going?" The essence of being in the Upanishads denotes "Brahman" - the beginning of everything spiritual, the universal and faceless soul of the universe, reviving the universe. "Brahman" is identical, but opposite to "Atman" - the individual beginning of the spiritual "I". "Brahman" is the highest objective principle, while "Atman" is subjective and spiritual. Here there is a connection of dharma about Samsara and Karma - about the cycle of life, eternal rebirth and the rule of restitution. Understanding the future of a person occurs through awareness of one's behavior and actions committed in previous lives. Therefore, leading a decent lifestyle personifies the future and a new birth in the higher castes or departure to the spiritual world. For unrighteous behavior in the current life, leads to future incarnations in the lower classes, and the "Atman" can be reborn into the body of an animal. The main task of the Upanishads is moksha or liberation from material wealth and spiritual self-perfection. Each person is the "smith" of his own happiness and his destiny is shaped by real actions - such is the philosophy of the Upanishads.

Philosophical schools of ancient India

The whole philosophy of India is based on systems. In the sixth century BC, the emergence of philosophical schools began. Schools were divided into:

• "Astika" - orthodox schools based on the authority of the Vedas. These included the Mimamsa, Vedanta, Yoga, Samkhya, Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools;
• "Nastika" - unorthodox schools that refute the treatises of the Vedas for lies. These included schools: Jainism, Buddhism and Charvaka Lokayata.

Let us briefly consider each of the orthodox schools:

1. Mimansa or Purva-mimansa (first) - was founded by the ancient Indian sage Jaimini (3-1 centuries BC) and included: research, analysis, interpretation and reflection on the scriptures;
2. Vedanta - compiled by the sage Vyasa (about 5 thousand years ago), the main goal relied on self-consciousness, an individual's understanding of his original nature and truth;
3. Yoga - founded by the sage Patanjali (in the 2nd century BC), is aimed at improving the human spirit, through the practice of unifying the body and mind, followed by liberation (moksha);
4. Sankhya - founded by the sage Kapila, the school is aimed at diverting the spirit (purusha) from matter (prakriti);
5. Nyaya - and the laws of logic, according to which the external world exists independently of knowledge and reason. Objects of knowledge: our "I", body, feelings, mind, rebirth, suffering and liberation;
6. Vaisheshika - founded by the sage Canada (Uluka) (3-2 centuries BC), which is at the same time an opponent and supporter of Buddhist phenomenalism. Recognizing Buddhism as the source of knowledge and perception, but refuting the truth of the facts of soul and substance.

Let us briefly consider each of the heterodox schools:

1. Jainism is translated from Sanskrit as “winner”, a Dharmic religion, the founder of whose teachings is Jina Mahavira (8-6 centuries BC). The philosophy of the school is based on the self-improvement of the soul to achieve nirvana;
2. Buddhism - was formed in the 5th-1st centuries BC, the teaching of the school assumed 4 truths: 1 - life is like suffering, 2 - the causes of which are desires and passions, 3 - deliverance occurs only after the rejection of desires, 4 - through a series of rebirths and getting rid of the bonds of Samsara;
3. Charvaka-lokayata - materialistic atheistic teaching and low view. The universe and all things arose naturally, without the intervention of otherworldly forces, thanks to 4 elements: earth, water, fire and air.