Philosophy spiritual culture. Spiritual culture in philosophy. But there were many who saw their destiny in the passionate service of philosophically meaningful goals and ideals, not only their own, but also public ones.
1 Philosophical understanding of being
The problem of comprehending the existence of man was the first, the main problem of philosophy in ancient times, but it is especially acute today, in the era of the crisis of man and culture.
The need for a philosophical understanding of human existence is due to many factual circumstances:
1. It is a fact that the dominant position among world civilizations is occupied by Western civilization. This civilization is considered to be the main guideline for the development of mankind, and our Georgian society is also included in this marathon.
Modern Western civilization, in its essence, is based on the rational ordering of earthly life. Earth life includes the natural and social environment. Things are the object of satisfaction of needs, then their production and consumption acquire a universal character. The main means of production and consumption of things are, on the one hand, the development of production (industry), scientific and technological progress, and, on the other hand, the extreme rationalization of the social environment. The first - gives rise to the cult of science and technology, and the second - absolute sociologization social life.
The ideological basis of Western civilization is scientism, the essence of which is the absolute universalization of science and technology. As a result, we have commodity fetishism, a thing must turn into a commodity, and the commodity is based on market conditions. The market and trade turn everything into an exchange value, the market forms a “market type” person, and the relationships between people take on the petty-bourgeois, profit-based monetary form of soulless commodity relations. True human spiritual, psychic essential forces (good, beautiful, truth, etc.) are suppressed and enable the unconditional realization of the vital-physiological essential forces.
The meaning of being a person of Western civilization is in a comfortable arrangement of life, in the maximum satisfaction of material needs. “I must have infinitely more than what I need” - such is the essence of the moral imperative of a person of Western civilization. It is obvious that man has become detached from his true being. It was replaced by pseudo-being.
2. The fact that we live in the era of globalization is a fact. The content of the concept of "globalization" generally comprehends the new relationships between people, peoples of countries and regions (E. Giddens). These new relationships really imply the affirmation of the relationships characteristic of Western civilization, or rather their "Americanization", which aims to universalize the way of life. This means that education, faith, activities, fashion, recreation, pastime, etc. will be based on the standards and patterns of Western civilization, means the establishment of a common way of life.
Obviously, in the conditions of the establishment of a single, common Western civilization, human relations are simplified, existing barriers are removed. There will no longer be room for various traditions, habits, rules, different value orientations in general, and, as a result, the organization and management of the economy will be facilitated, the pace of production and labor productivity, the level of economic development will increase, the spatio-temporal range of human contacts will expand, and the maximum satisfaction of material needs, etc. Modern globalization requires the establishment of a "new type of order" in the world. This "new type" of order is the American type of order, which requires the destruction of all those who do not fit into the system of this order. While Hegel believed that “everything that is untrue and unspiritual is worthy of destruction”, the ideology of the “new order”, based on the postmodern worldview, believes that everything true and spiritual should be destroyed if they do not meet the standards of Western civilization . Globalization poses an alternative to "strangers": either degenerate and be destroyed, or submit to change and be transformed. Globalization as "Americanization" creates a danger to the functioning of national languages. The English language acquires a general, universal function. It is formed as a universal language of the human right to work, employment, communication, relationships, etc. National languages, as the main means of disseminating and expressing national life, are losing value and significance. This, in fact, indicates the danger of the death of national culture. Today, national cultures are in danger of becoming museum pieces.
The postmodern worldview is characterized by ontological nihilism, expressed in the neglect of the "omnipotence of reason". The "new" interpretive mind is looking for the foundations of truth not in metaphysics, but here, in relationships, dialogue, communications of changeable individuals that exist now. Postmodern consciousness denies universal values - truth, goodness, beauty. Traditional values are depreciated, extreme relativism and promiscuity are asserted. Kindness as caring for others is neglected and the moral imperative of human behavior is declared to be caring for oneself. The "ethics of the universal" (Kant) - the ethics of duty - gives way to the "small ethics" - the ethics of the goal. Individualism takes extreme form. The protection of the rights of the individual is of paramount importance. Same-sex marriages are allowed and these rights are enforced by law.
In the field of art, traditional forms and criteria are denied. Postmodern aesthetics emphasizes discontinuity, the unambiguous meaning of a work of art is denied. Such a methodological approach caused a radical modification of the main aesthetic categories - the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic, the comic. The classical understanding of the beautiful, which carried in itself moments of truth and goodness, is declared groundless in postmodern aesthetics. In it, attention is transferred to the "beautifulness" of asymmetry and assonances, to disharmonic integrity. Therefore, Mozart's music is being replaced by rap.
It is obvious that a person, an ethnos, a nation, included in the process of globalization, with its expected results, divorced from their own being, require mandatory coverage of the problem of the meaning of being and taking these factors into account.
3. The modern era can be called the era of philosophical nihilism and sociological optimism. Today, philosophy and philosophizing are declared useless, empty things. In antiquity, she was in a privileged state, performing the function of both wisdom and science. In the Middle Ages, she loses the status of wisdom and performs the function of the servant of theology. In modern times, it is freed from this function and it has a claim to absolute, true knowledge, it acquires the function of a judge of science. In the era of technological progress, the private sciences have achieved a complete monopolization of knowledge. Metaphysical problems are declared meaningless. The need for philosophy is reduced to a minimum. It has lost its function of critical reason and self-awareness of culture. The love of wisdom has been replaced by the love of things.
The private natural sciences and sociology, founded on a belief in formal rationalism, took the place of a worldview. Modern sociology is based on the system of values of Western civilization, which is established by positivist philosophy, which, in turn, is based on a rational worldview.
Today, "philosophy has become a pensioner" (A. Schweitzer), busy only classifying the achievements of the sciences. Philosophy, having lost its creative spirit, turned into the history of philosophy and took shape as a philosophy devoid of critical thinking. The culture left without an ideological guideline, without self-awareness, drowned in complete lack of culture.
The trend of a nihilistic attitude towards philosophy was comprehended at the beginning of the 20th century. The philosophy of life and existentialism, in fact, were an attempt to recognize and overcome this trend. This problem was especially sharply considered in German existentialism. It was the representatives of German existentialism who saw that the problem can be solved only through the analysis of being.
Today, the main task of philosophy in general is the establishment of a new metaphysics, the liberation of philosophy from the fetters of science, its rehabilitation as metaphysics.
Topic 1. Philosophy in the system of spiritual culture .............................................. ......................... 2
Topic 2. The subject and functions of philosophy ............................................... ......................................... 2
Topic 3. Worldview pictures of the world .............................................. ................................... 3
Topic 4. Philosophy of antiquity .............................................. ................................................. ....... 5
Topic 5. medieval philosophy............................................................................................... 7
Topic 6. Philosophy of the Renaissance .............................................. ......................................... 8
Topic 7. Philosophy of the New Age .............................................. ............................................... 9
Topic 8. Modern foreign philosophy .............................................. ............................... 13
Topic 9. Domestic philosophy ............................................... ................................................... 17
Topic 10. The problem of being ............................................... ................................................. ............. 21
Topic 12. Movement, space and time .............................................. ......................................... 22
Topic 13. Dialectics and metaphysics .............................................. ................................................. 24
Topic 14. The problem of consciousness ............................................... ................................................. ........ 25
Topic 15. Cognitive abilities of a person .............................................. ......................... 27
Theme 16. The problem of truth .............................................. ................................................. .......... 29
Topic 17. Scientific knowledge ............................................... ................................................. .......... thirty
Topic 18. Man and nature .............................................. ................................................. .......... 33
Topic 19. Man and society .............................................. ................................................. ........ 34
Topic 20. Man and culture .............................................. ................................................. ......... 36
Topic 21. The meaning of human life .............................................. ................................................. .. 37
Topic 22. Society as a system .............................................. ................................................. .... 38
Topic 23. The problem of the development of society .............................................. ......................................... 40
Topic 24. Technology and society .............................................. ................................................. ........ 42
Topic 25. Global problems of our time .............................................. ...................... 44
Philosophy is a special type of worldview.
outlook- a system of a person's views on the world, on himself and on his place in the world; includes worldview, worldview and worldview.
Mythology- this is historically the first form of a holistic and figurative worldview. Myth function – consolidation of established traditions and norms.
Religion - a type of worldview, determined by the belief in the existence of supernatural forces. Religion is aimed at comprehending the sacred world. Religious values are expressed in commandments. In the life of society, religion is the guardian of timeless values.
Philosophy- this is a system-rationalized worldview, i.e. a system of rationally justified views on the world and man's place in it. Philosophy arose in the 7th-6th centuries. BC through overcoming the myth. Initially, philosophy was understood as "the love of wisdom." European philosophy originated in Ancient Greece. The first to use the term "wise-minded", i.e. began to call himself a philosopher, was Pythagoras. Until the middle of the XIX century. there was a belief that philosophy is the "queen of the sciences".
Philosophy as the doctrine of the first principles of being is called metaphysics. Philosophy is aimed at comprehending universal connections in reality. The most important value in philosophy is true knowledge.
Philosophy theoretically substantiates the basic principles of the worldview. Philosophy is the theoretical core, the core of the spiritual culture of man and society, the expression of the self-awareness of the historical era. Philosophical knowledge, used in various spheres of people's lives as a guide for activities, acts as a methodology
The assimilation of philosophical thinking contributes to the formation of such personality traits as criticality and self-criticism.
Philosophy and Science. As rational knowledge, in which the essential connections of reality are revealed, philosophy acts as Sciences. The role of philosophy in science lies in the methodology scientific knowledge. Unlike science, philosophy is characterized by the fact that most philosophical statements are not empirically provable; philosophy comprehends the world in its universal integrity.
Philosophy and Art. Realizing a personal approach in understanding reality, philosophy appears as art. Like philosophy, art is personal. In contrast to philosophy, in art, experience is transmitted in images (in philosophy, in concepts and theories).
Philosophy and Religion. The difference between philosophy and religions consists in the fact that it is a theoretical form of mastering the universe, and also that in philosophy the cognitive function is leading for it.
The specific object of philosophy is being as a whole. Philosophy explores the universal interrelationships in the "man - the world" system. Philosophical problems are characterized by the fact that they have a universal, limiting character and are fundamentally open to new solutions ("eternal questions").
Sections of philosophical knowledge:
-Ontology- the doctrine of being.
-Epistemology- the doctrine of knowledge and cognition.
-Anthropology- the doctrine of the origin, essence and evolution of man.
-Praxeology- the doctrine of human activity.
-Axiology- doctrine of values .
-Aesthetics- the doctrine of beauty.
-Logics- the doctrine of the basic laws and forms of thinking.
-Epistemology- the doctrine of scientific, reliable knowledge.
-Ethics- the doctrine of morality, morality, virtue.
-social philosophy- the doctrine of society as a special kind of reality.
-History of philosophy- philosophy, studied in the process of its prehistory, emergence, formation and development.
-Philosophy of history- the doctrine of the process public life.
Functions of Philosophy:
– ideological(forms a picture of the world and the existence of a person in it; helps a person in solving the question of the meaning of life);
– epistemological(accumulates, generalizes and transmits new knowledge; helps a person to understand his place in nature and society);
– methodological(analyzes methods of cognition, clarifies the problems of specific sciences, acts as the basis for guidance to activities);
– logical-epistemological(substantiates the conceptual and theoretical structures scientific knowledge);
– explanatory and informational,ideological(forms a worldview in accordance with the latest achievements of science and the existing social reality);
– critical(teaches not to accept or reject anything at once without deep and independent reflection and analysis);
– heuristic(capable, in alliance with science, to predict the general course of the development of being; this function is connected with the methodological significance of philosophy);
integrating(combines the achievements of sciences into a single whole);
– axiological(forms value orientations and ideals);
– humanistic(provides a rationale for the value of a person and his freedom, "purification of the soul"; helps to find the meaning of life in crisis situations);
– practical(develops strategies for the relationship between man and nature).
Picture of the world- an intellectual component of any type of worldview, a system of ideas about the general structure of the universe. Any picture of the world highlights the essential aspects of reality, but at the same time simplifies and schematizes reality.
For mythological picture of the world characteristic: anthropomorphism, humanization of nature, i.e. transfer of the main features of humanity to the universe; artistic imagery, syncretism, cosmocentrism.
For religious picture of the world characteristic: belief in the existence of a supernatural world, theocentrism, the principle of creationism (creation of the world by God), reliance on scriptures, the principle of revelation, the unconditional influence of authority.
For scientific picture of the world characteristic: mathematical formalization, focus on true knowledge of the causes, validity by facts, the ability to make correct predictions. First classical The scientific picture of the world of the 17th century was of a mechanical nature. Transition to non-classical(modern) scientific picture of the world began at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. in connection with the discoveries of the presence of chance and the evolution of nature (quantum physics, the theory of relativity, synergetics).
Philosophical picture of the world connected with the question of the relation of thinking to being ("the main question of philosophy", according to F. Engels). Philosophers are divided into materialists and idealists depending on which sphere of being is assigned priority - nature or spirit.
Materialism - a philosophical direction that considers the material principle the basis of being ("matter is primary, consciousness is secondary"; "being determines consciousness"). According to materialism, there is nothing outside of nature and man, and higher beings are just our fantasies. Being is the disclosure of the essential forces of matter itself, its self-movement as a substance. Types of materialism: metaphysical (mechanistic) and dialectical materialism.
Metaphysical (mechanistic) materialism - a trend in philosophy, according to which nature does not develop, is qualitatively unchanged (Democritus, Leucippus, Epicurus, F. Bacon, J. Locke, J. La Mettrie, Helvetius, etc.).
1 Philosophical understanding of being
The problem of comprehending the existence of man was the first, the main problem of philosophy in ancient times, but it is especially acute today, in the era of the crisis of man and culture.
The need for a philosophical understanding of human existence is due to many factual circumstances:
1. It is a fact that the dominant position among world civilizations is occupied by Western civilization. This civilization is considered to be the main guideline for the development of mankind, and our Georgian society is also included in this marathon.
Modern Western civilization, in its essence, is based on the rational ordering of earthly life. Terrestrial life involves the natural and social environment. Things are the object of satisfaction of needs, then their production and consumption acquire a universal character. The main means of production and consumption of things are, on the one hand, the development of production (industry), scientific and technological progress, and, on the other hand, the extreme rationalization of the social environment. The first gives rise to the cult of science and technology, and the second - the absolute sociologization of social life.
The ideological basis of Western civilization is scientism, the essence of which is the absolute universalization of science and technology. As a result, we have commodity fetishism, a thing must turn into a commodity, and the commodity is based on market conditions. The market and trade turn everything into an exchange value, the market forms a “market type” person, and the relationships between people take on the petty-bourgeois, profit-based monetary form of soulless commodity relations. True human spiritual, psychic essential forces (good, beautiful, truth, etc.) are suppressed and enable the unconditional realization of the vital-physiological essential forces.
The meaning of being a person of Western civilization is in a comfortable arrangement of life, in the maximum satisfaction of material needs. “I must have infinitely more than what I need” - such is the essence of the moral imperative of a person of Western civilization. It is obvious that man has become detached from his true being. It was replaced by pseudo-being.
2. The fact that we live in the era of globalization is a fact. The content of the concept of "globalization" generally comprehends the new relationships between people, peoples of countries and regions (E. Giddens). These new relationships really imply the affirmation of the relationships characteristic of Western civilization, or rather their "Americanization", which aims to universalize the way of life. This means that education, faith, activities, fashion, recreation, pastime, etc. will be based on the standards and patterns of Western civilization, means the establishment of a common way of life.
Obviously, in the conditions of the establishment of a single, common Western civilization, human relations are simplified, existing barriers are removed. There will no longer be room for various traditions, habits, rules, different value orientations in general, and, as a result, the organization and management of the economy will be facilitated, the pace of production and labor productivity, the level of economic development will increase, the spatio-temporal range of human contacts will expand, and the maximum satisfaction of material needs, etc. Modern globalization requires the establishment of a "new type of order" in the world. This "new type" of order is the American type of order, which requires the destruction of all those who do not fit into the system of this order. While Hegel believed that “everything that is untrue and unspiritual is worthy of destruction”, the ideology of the “new order”, based on the postmodern worldview, believes that everything true and spiritual should be destroyed if they do not meet the standards of Western civilization . Globalization poses an alternative to "strangers": either degenerate and be destroyed, or submit to change and be transformed. Globalization as "Americanization" creates a danger to the functioning of national languages. The English language acquires a general, universal function. It is formed as a universal language of the human right to work, employment, communication, relationships, etc. National languages, as the main means of disseminating and expressing national life, are losing value and significance. This, in fact, indicates the danger of the death of national culture. Today, national cultures are in danger of becoming museum pieces.
The postmodern worldview is characterized by ontological nihilism, expressed in the neglect of the "omnipotence of reason". The "new" interpretive mind is looking for the foundations of truth not in metaphysics, but here, in relationships, dialogue, communications of changeable individuals that exist now. Postmodern consciousness denies universal values - truth, goodness, beauty. Traditional values are depreciated, extreme relativism and promiscuity are asserted. Kindness as caring for others is neglected and the moral imperative of human behavior is declared to be caring for oneself. The "ethics of the universal" (Kant) - the ethics of duty - gives way to the "small ethics" - the ethics of the goal. Individualism takes on an extreme form. The protection of the rights of the individual is of paramount importance. Same-sex marriages are allowed and these rights are enforced by law.
In the field of art, traditional forms and criteria are denied. Postmodern aesthetics emphasizes discontinuity, the unambiguous meaning of a work of art is denied. Such a methodological approach caused a radical modification of the main aesthetic categories - the beautiful, the sublime, the tragic, the comic. The classical understanding of the beautiful, which carried in itself moments of truth and goodness, is declared groundless in postmodern aesthetics. In it, attention is transferred to the "beautifulness" of asymmetry and assonances, to disharmonic integrity. Therefore, Mozart's music is being replaced by rap.
It is obvious that a person, an ethnos, a nation, included in the process of globalization, with its expected results, divorced from their own being, require mandatory coverage of the problem of the meaning of being and taking these factors into account.
3. The modern era can be called the era of philosophical nihilism and sociological optimism. Today, philosophy and philosophizing are declared useless, empty things. In antiquity, she was in a privileged state, performing the function of both wisdom and science. In the Middle Ages, she loses the status of wisdom and performs the function of the servant of theology. In modern times, it is freed from this function and it has a claim to absolute, true knowledge, it acquires the function of a judge of science. In the era of technological progress, the private sciences have achieved a complete monopolization of knowledge. Metaphysical problems are declared meaningless. The need for philosophy is reduced to a minimum. It has lost its function of critical reason and self-awareness of culture. The love of wisdom has been replaced by the love of things.
The private natural sciences and sociology, founded on a belief in formal rationalism, took the place of a worldview. Modern sociology is based on the system of values of Western civilization, which is established by positivist philosophy, which, in turn, is based on a rational worldview.
Today, "philosophy has become a pensioner" (A. Schweitzer), busy only classifying the achievements of the sciences. Philosophy, having lost its creative spirit, turned into the history of philosophy and took shape as a philosophy devoid of critical thinking. The culture left without an ideological guideline, without self-awareness, drowned in complete lack of culture.
The trend of a nihilistic attitude towards philosophy was comprehended at the beginning of the 20th century. The philosophy of life and existentialism, in fact, were an attempt to recognize and overcome this trend. This problem was especially sharply considered in German existentialism. It was the representatives of German existentialism who saw that the problem can be solved only through the analysis of being.
Today, the main task of philosophy in general is the establishment of a new metaphysics, the liberation of philosophy from the fetters of science, its rehabilitation as metaphysics.
2 The concept of spiritual culture. Criteria of spirituality
The concept of spiritual culture:
It contains all areas of spiritual production (art, philosophy, science, etc.),
shows the socio-political processes taking place in society (we are talking about the power structures of management, legal and moral standards leadership styles, etc.).
The ancient Greeks formed the classical triad of the spiritual culture of mankind: truth - goodness - beauty. Accordingly, three most important value absolutes of human spirituality were identified:
· theorism, with a focus on truth and the creation of a special essential being, opposite to the ordinary phenomena of life;
· this, subordinating to the moral content of life all other human aspirations;
Aestheticism, reaching the maximum fullness of life based on emotional and sensory experience.
The aspects of spiritual culture outlined above have found their embodiment in various fields of human activity: in science, philosophy, politics, art, law, etc. Spiritual culture involves activities aimed at the spiritual development of man and society, and also represents the results of this activity.
Spiritual culture is a set of non-material elements of culture: norms of behavior, morality, values, rituals, symbols, knowledge, myths, ideas, customs, traditions, language.
Spiritual culture arises from the need for comprehension and figurative-sensual development of reality. IN real life realized in a number of specialized forms: morality, art, religion, philosophy, science.
All these forms human life are interconnected and influence each other. In morality, the idea of good and evil, honor, conscience, justice, etc. is fixed. These ideas, norms regulate the behavior of people in society.
Art includes aesthetic values (beautiful, sublime, ugly) and the ways in which they are created and consumed.
Religion serves the needs of the spirit, a person turns his gaze to God. Philosophy satisfies the needs of the human spirit for unity on a rational (reasonable) basis.
The concept of "spiritual culture" has a complex and confusing history. At the beginning of the 19th century, spiritual culture was considered as a church-religious concept. At the beginning of the 20th century, the understanding of spiritual culture became much broader, including not only religion, but also morality, politics, and art.
In the Soviet period, the concept of "spiritual culture" was treated superficially by the authors. Material production generates material culture - it is primary, and spiritual production generates spiritual culture (ideas, feelings, theories) - it is secondary.
In the 21st century "spiritual culture" is understood in different ways:
as something sacred (religious);
as something positive that does not require explanation;
as mystical-esoteric.
At present, as before, the concept of "spiritual culture" is not clearly defined and developed.
The relevance of the problem of the formation of the spirituality of the individual in the current situation is due to a number of reasons. Today, many ailments of social life: crime, immorality, prostitution, alcoholism, drug addiction and others - are explained primarily by the state of lack of spirituality in modern society, a condition that causes serious concern and progresses from year to year. The search for ways to overcome these social vices puts the problem of spirituality at the center of humanitarian knowledge. Its relevance is also due to economic reasons: as social, economic, political reforms are carried out in society, the conditions and nature of human labor, its motivation are rapidly changing.
True spirituality is "the trinity of truth, goodness and beauty" and the main criteria for such spirituality are:
Intentionality, that is, “outward orientation, towards something or someone, towards a deed or a person, towards an idea or towards a person”.
· reflection on the basic life values that make up the meaning of the existence of the individual and act as guidelines in a situation of existential choice. It is the ability to reflect, from the point of view of Teilhard de Chardin, that is main reason superiority of man over animals. One of the conditions for the formation of the ability to reflect is seclusion, exile, voluntary or forced loneliness.
freedom, understood as self-determination, that is, the ability to act in accordance with one's goals and values, and not under the yoke of external circumstances.
Creativity, understood not only as an activity that generates something new that did not exist before, but also as self-creation - creativity aimed at finding oneself, at realizing one's meaning in life;
· a developed conscience, which harmonizes the "eternal, universal moral law with the specific situation of a particular individual", because the consciousness is open to the existent;
The responsibility of the individual for the realization of his meaning of life and the realization of values, as well as for everything that happens in the world.
These are the main criteria for the spirituality of a person in the understanding of Russian and foreign philosophers: N.A. Berdyaev, V. Frankl, E. Fromm, T. de Chardin, M. Scheler and others.
3 Law and science in the system of spiritual culture
Science and law are part of culture, so any scientific picture reflects the mutual influence of all elements of culture in a particular era. In the system of human culture, which consists of material, social and spiritual culture, science is included in the system of human spiritual culture.
Culture is a system of means of human activity, thanks to which the activity of an individual, groups, humanity and their interactions with nature and among themselves is programmed, implemented and stimulated.
material culture is a system of material and energy means of being of a person and society. This includes such elements as tools, active and passive equipment, Physical Culture, welfare of the people.
Spiritual culture is a system of knowledge, states of the emotional-volitional sphere of the psyche and thinking of individuals, as well as direct forms of their expressions and signs. The universal sign is language. The system of spiritual culture includes such elements as morality, law, religion, worldview, ideology, art, science.
Science is a system of human consciousness and activity aimed at achieving objectively true knowledge and systematization of information available to a person and society.
The humanities are systems of knowledge, the subject of which are the values of society. These include: social ideals, goals, norms and rules of thinking, communication, behavior, based on a certain understanding of the usefulness for an individual, group or humanity of any objective actions.
Anthropological sciences are a set of sciences about man, the unity and difference of his natural and social properties.
Engineering science is a system of knowledge and activities for the practical use of the laws of nature in the interests of man in technology. They study the laws and specifics of the creation and operation of complex technical devices used by individuals and mankind in various spheres of life.
Social science is a system of sciences about society as a part of being, constantly recreated in the activities of people.
An analysis of the above definitions shows how complex and diverse the links between the elements of culture are both horizontally and vertically. Culture is a system of norms, values, principles, beliefs and aspirations of members of society - this is the normative system of society. Its features define character traits natural-scientific picture of the world in a particular era.
The difference between them is primarily on the question of ways historical development Russia: Westerners saw the future of Russia in following Western Europe highly appreciated the activities of Peter I; Slavophiles, on the contrary, accused Peter of violating the organic development of Russia, which has a cultural identity; domestic culture requires a special way of development and creation of Orthodox philosophy. The form of movement towards the new world is the union of philosophy with the life of science with the masses; then the time of conscious action will begin - this is a characteristic of the essence ...
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Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Budgetary Educational Institution
higher professional education
"Ufa State Oil Technical University"
(Branch of FGBOU VPO UGNTU in Salavat)
World and national culture
SPIRITUAL CULTURE AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE 19TH CENTURY
Essay
OND-140400.62-2.53 R
Executor:
student gr. BAEz - 13-21 N. V. Shapovalov
Supervisor:
teacher S.E. Neyasova
Salavat
2015
INTRODUCTION
1 Spiritual culture of the 19th century
1.1 Spiritual culture at the beginning of the 19th century
1.2 Spiritual culture at the end of the 19th century
2 Russian philosophy of the 19th century
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Philosophy is not only the product of the activity of pure reason, not only the result of the research of a narrow circle of specialists. It is an expression of the spiritual experience of the nation, its intellectual potential, embodied in the diversity of cultural creations.
The concept of "spiritual culture" goes back to the historical and philosophical ideas of the German philosopher, linguist and statesman Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to the theory of historical knowledge he worked out, world history is the result of the activity of a spiritual force that lies beyond the limits of knowledge, which manifests itself through the creative abilities and personal efforts of individual individuals. The fruits of this co-creation constitute the spiritual culture of mankind.
Spiritual culture arises due to the fact that a person does not limit himself to only sensual-external experience and does not assign primary importance to it, but recognizes the main and guiding spiritual experience from which he lives, loves, believes and evaluates all things. With this inner spiritual experience, a person determines the meaning and the highest goal of the outer, sensory experience.
Spiritual culture is a sphere of human activity, covering various aspects of the spiritual life of a person and society. Spiritual culture includes forms of social consciousness and their embodiment in literary, architectural and other monuments of human activity.
1 Spiritual culture of the 19th century
Spiritual culture is a system of knowledge and worldview ideas inherent in a specific cultural and historical unity or humanity as a whole.
1.1 Spiritual culture at the beginning of the XIX century.
The beginning of the 19th century is the time of the cultural and spiritual upsurge of Russia. In the first half of the 19th century, seven universities were formed in Russia. In addition to the functioning Moscow, Derpt, Vilna, Kazan, Kharkov, St. Petersburg and Kiev universities were established. The book publishing and magazine and newspaper business continued to develop. In 1813 there were 55 state printing houses in the country.
Public libraries and museums played a positive role in the cultural life of the country. The first public library was opened in St. Petersburg in 1814 (now the State National Library).
The first third of the 19th century is called the "golden age" of Russian culture. Its beginning coincided with the era of classicism in Russian literature and art.
1.2 Spiritual culture at the end of the XIX century.
In the middle of the 19th and early 20th centuries, a revival of interest in ancient Russian architecture gave rise to the family architectural styles, often combined under the name "pseudo-Russian style" (also "Russian style", "neo-Russian style"), in which at a new technological level there was a partial borrowing of the architectural forms of ancient Russian and Byzantine architecture.
The founder of the "Russian-Byzantine style" is considered to be Konstantin Andreevich Ton, who worked in the middle of the 19th century. It is customary to rank the Cathedral of Christ the Savior (1860) and the Grand Kremlin Palace (18381849) among his most important creations. The exterior decoration of the palace uses the motifs of the Terem Palace: the windows are made in the tradition of Russian architecture and are decorated with carved architraves with double arches and a weight in the middle. There comes a period of passion for small brick ornaments, decorative forms of the 16th century porches, tents, kokoshniks, etc. Rezanov, Gornostaev and others also work in this style.
In the early 1870s, populist ideas awakened in artistic circles an increased interest in folk culture, peasant architecture and Russian architecture of the 16th and 17th centuries. One of the most striking buildings of the pseudo-Russian style of the 1870s was Ivan Ropet's "Terem" in Abramtsevo near Moscow (1873) and the Mamontov printing house in Moscow, built by Viktor Hartman (1872).
At the beginning of the 20th century, the “neo-Russian style” was being developed. In search of monumental simplicity, the architects turned to the ancient monuments of Novgorod and Pskov and to the traditions of architecture of the Russian North. In St. Petersburg, the “neo-Russian style” found application mainly in the church buildings of Vladimir Pokrovsky, Stepan Krichinsky, Andrey Aplaksin, Herman Grimm, although some tenement houses were built in the same style (a typical example is the Kuperman house, built by the architect A.L. Lishnevsky on Plutalova street).
2 Russian philosophy of the 19th century
Early 19th century - this is the period associated with the formation of the self-consciousness of the Russian nation and, as a result of this, the design of the first original philosophical movements in Russia: Westerners and Slavophiles. The difference between them is, first of all, on the question of the ways of Russia's historical development: Westerners saw the future of Russia in following Western Europe, they highly appreciated the activities of Peter I; Slavophiles, on the contrary, accused Peter of violating the organic development of Russia, which has a cultural identity; domestic culture requires a special way of development and creation of Orthodox philosophy.
Great personalities belonged to the philosophical direction "Westerners":
P. Ya. Chaadaev (1794-1856) and N. V. Stankevich (1813-1840), who believed that Russia should learn from the West and follow the same path of development that Western Europe has been and is following. The true religion is Catholicism.
Herzen Alexander (1812-1870) There is a unity of being and thinking, life and ideal (tried to find and formulate a new method of cognition). The form of movement towards the new world is the union of philosophy with life, science with the masses; then the time of "conscious action" will begin (this is a characteristic of the essence of a person who rises above an unreasonable existence and above an impassive pursuit of science). Nature is the primary living process, and dialectics - knowledge and logic - its reflection and continuation.
Belinsky (1811-1848) The spiritual nature of man is different from his physical nature, but is inseparable from it; the spiritual is the activity of the physical. The source of historical progress is the consciousness that puts forward new ideals. The national is the expression and development of the universal: humanity outside nationalities is only a logical abstraction. The Slavophiles are wrong in opposing Russia and Western Europe.
Chernyshevsky (1828-1889) Human nature is not within the individual, but in his unity with natural and social forces. History is cyclical. It consists of regular ascending and descending phases of development in the revolutions of modern times. History is influenced by the forces of "evil", i.e. negative qualities of people in ruling positions.
The philosophical direction "Slavophiles" belonged to:
I. V. Kireevsky (1806-1856) and A. S. Khomyakov (1804-1860) sought to substantiate the need for a special path for the development of Russia. It was believed that the Russians could count on progress, because. Orthodoxy is the true religion, and the basis of social life is the religion of the people, which determines the nature of its thinking.
V. S. Solovyov (1853-1900) presented the following picture of the world: there is one divine world in three main spheres (substance, mental sensual), man is an act of divine creation, a manifestation of what already exists.
Ivanov - Razumnin (1868-1912) Man is God's creature, if a person is proud of himself, then this leads to a decline in morality. He believed that Russia was moving towards a terrible catastrophe, rejecting the perfection of the individual.
N. A. Berdyaev (1874-1948) There are 2 types of freedom: irrational (original, chaos) and reasonable (freedom in God), overcoming evil, union with God, the emergence of a God-man.
The 19th century opens a new stage in the history of Russian philosophy, characterized by its complication, the appearance of a number of philosophical directions associated with both idealism and materialism. The role of professional philosophical thought is growing, primarily due to the development of philosophical education within the walls of universities and theological academies. There is also a general growth of philosophical knowledge, especially in such areas as anthropology, ethics, philosophy of history, epistemology and ontology. There is an expansion of philosophical contacts with the West, the latest achievements of the European intellect are mastered (Kant, Schelling, Hegel, Comte, Spencer, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Marx).
Here, however, the principle "the more modern, the more true" did not always work. Thus, the Decembrists were inspired mainly by the French philosophy of the past century, which was considered unacceptable for members of the circle of wisdom; and the ideologists of populism, although they recognized the philosophical significance of K. Marx, but not unconditionally, since they were also guided by Comte, Proudhon and Lassalle. The Slavophiles, first paying tribute to Schelling and Hegel, then made a "conservative turn", turning to the Christian patristic tradition. The novelty and originality of the views of Russian thinkers was determined, however, not by their sensitivity to the perception Western philosophy, but focusing on the problems of Russia, national self-consciousness. So, P. Ya. Chaadaev, an admirer of French traditionalism and Schelling's correspondent, becomes the founder of Russian historiosophy, and the "Russian Hegelian and Feuerbachian" N. G. Chernyshevsky - the creator of the theory of Russia's transition to socialism, bypassing the capitalist stage of development.
Important philosophical ideas in the XIX century. often belonged not to systematizers-theorists, but to members of philosophical circles (wise-minded, Slavophiles and Westernizers), publicists and literary critics (V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. A. Dobrolyubov, D. I. Pisarev, A. A. Grigoriev, N. K. Mikhailovsky), religious writers (K. N. Leontiev), outstanding artists of the word (F. M. Dostoevsky, L. N. Tolstoy), revolutionary theorists (P. L. Lavrov, M. A. . Bakunin), etc. It was the thinkers of this type, the bearers of "free philosophy", who were the initiators of new philosophical ideas, developed and enriched the terminology, although they did not create complete philosophical systems. This does not, of course, indicate any inferiority of their intellect. On the contrary, just ideas of this kind were "grasped" much faster by the intelligentsia and widely disseminated through "thick magazines" not only in the capitals, but also in the provinces.
All these thinkers are characterized by the fact that they belonged to various "ideological currents", which were only partly philosophical, since they included a significant layer of non-philosophical - theological, historical, aesthetic, socio-political, economic, etc. - problems. The ideas of such thinkers as P. Ya. Chaadaev, N. Ya. Danilevsky, K. N. Leontiev, and others were used in the 19th and then in the 20th century. different ideological currents, and again, not only in a purely philosophical, but also in a cultural, theological and even geopolitical context.
The reason why the Russian intelligentsia was most closely associated with "free", and not professional, university philosophy, is that the government, on the one hand, and philosophers, on the other, understood the goals of spreading philosophical knowledge in different ways. . In Russia, only support from the state could ensure the functioning of the system of professional training in the field of philosophy. This is evidenced by the initiation of philosophical education "from above", by Peter I and his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna, who supported the foundation in 1755 of Moscow University. In this regard, the government played the role of "the only European" in Russia (as defined by A. S. Pushkin).
Universities and scholars stood for autonomy, for the rights of the council of professors to direct the course of academic life, and for the freedom of academic associations, societies, and meetings. On the contrary, the types of government in the field of higher education and science were protective in the sense of being protected from the "revolutionary infection" from Europe. Hence - government harassment, restrictions on the teaching of philosophy. Candidates for professors were subject to mandatory approval by the Ministry of Public Education (founded in 1802), and philosophical writings were subjected to strict censorship. Therefore, some works that did not pass censorship were published abroad, for example, the works of A. S. Khomyakov and V. S. Solovyov.
The most severe restrictions on the teaching of philosophy were introduced after the European revolutions of 1848. By order of Nicholas I, the Minister of Education P.A. philosophical courses were assigned to professors of theology. He also owns the well-known phrase, which has become an aphorism: "The benefits of philosophy have not been proven, but harm from it is possible."
The fate of philosophy was more prosperous in four Russian theological academies (in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and Kazan), where the reading of philosophical courses was not interrupted. Spiritual-academic philosophy is a special branch of professional philosophizing. Higher spiritual educational institutions played a significant role in the development of Russian thought. Suffice it to say that the first generalized exposition of the history of Russian philosophy was written by Archimandrite Gabriel (in the world of V. N. Voskresensky) and was published in Kazan in 1840. S. S. Gogotsky, a representative of the Kiev school of spiritual and academic philosophy, published the first philosophical lexicons and dictionaries in Russia. The first Russian textbooks on philosophy were also written by professors of theological academies - F. F. Sidonsky, V. N. Karpov, V. D. Kudryavtsev-Platonov. An outstanding translator of Plato's works was V. N. Karpov, who considered the translation of Plato's dialogues into Russian the main work of his life. Strong point spiritual and academic philosophy was an appeal to the heritage of world philosophical thought. A constant and indispensable source of academic courses on logic, psychology, history of philosophy, ethics (usually published later in monographic versions) was the ancient philosophical thought(mainly Platonism), as well as the philosophy of the New Age, including the philosophy of Kant, Schelling and Hegel.
The time of formation of the most influential ideological currents of the XIX century. - 30-40s. - not accidentally called "philosophical awakening" (GV Florovsky). During this period, the social thought of Russia was divided into two directions - Slavophilism and Westernism. The dispute between them was sharp, but did not develop into an irreconcilable party-political squabble and did not involve the destruction of the enemy in order to prove the correctness of each of the disputing parties. And although the Slavophiles (I.V. Kireevsky, A.S. Khomyakov, K.S. and I.S. Aksakovs, etc.) focused on the national identity of Russia, and the Westerners (P.V. Annenkov, T.N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, and others) were more inclined to perceive the experience of Europe, and both of them passionately desired the prosperity of their homeland and actively contributed to this.
A participant in the philosophical discussions of that time, P. V. Annenkov, in his Literary Memoirs, called the dispute between the Slavophiles and the Westerners "a dispute between two various kinds the same Russian patriotism."
Subsequently, the terms "Slavophile" and "Westernizer" acquired a specific politicized connotation. (Today this is the name given to politicians or representatives of the opposing political directions behind which stands the corresponding "electorate".) Slavophilism and Westernism in the first half of the 19th century. should not be seen as hostile ideologies. Westernizers and Slavophiles played an important role in preparing the Russian public opinion to peasant reform. The Regulations of February 19, 1861, drawn up by the Slavophil Yu-F. Samarin and approved by Metropolitan Filaret of Moscow, were also supported by one of the leaders of the Westernizers, K. D. Kavelin. In addition, an attempt to divide all participants in the philosophical discussions of that time strictly into two camps (whoever is not a Westerner is a Slavophil, and vice versa) does not correspond to historical truth. The Slavophiles were united by a commitment Christian faith and orientation to patristic sources as the basis for the preservation of Orthodox Russian culture, while Westernism was characterized by adherence to secular views and ideas of Western European philosophy.
A great connoisseur of the philosophy of Schelling and Hegel was N. V. Stankevich, the founder of the philosophical circle, which included M. A. Bakunin, V. G. Belinsky, V. P. Botkin and others. Philosophical and historical ideas characteristic of Westerners were set out by K. D. Kavelin, the author of the work "A look at the legal life ancient Russia"(1847). Just like the Slavophiles, Kavelin emphasized the uniqueness of the historical path of Russia's development, although he understood its future in his own way. One of the founders of the so-called state school in Russian historiography, he recognized the decisive importance of the state element in Russian history.
CONCLUSION
The first half of the 19th century - the heyday of Russian artistic culture that has received worldwide recognition. During this period, the greatest literature was created (A.S. Pushkin, A.S. Griboedov, I.A. Krylov, I.V. Gogol, M.Yu. Lermantov, V.A. Zhukovsky), music ( M.I. Glinka), architecture (A.D. Zakharov, A.N. Voronikhin), painting (O.A. Kiprensky, A.A. Ivanov, P.A. Fedotov).
This flourishing of all types of art was largely due to the rise of the patriotic feelings of the Russian people in the war with Napoleon, the growth of national self-consciousness, the development of the progressive, liberation ideas of the Decembrists. The entire "Golden Age" of Russian culture is marked by civic passion, faith in the great destiny of man.
At the same time, Russian religious writers and philosophers proclaimed the highest goal of developing a culture of cognition of eternal spiritual values, the free expression of religious feelings and morality; at the turn of the century, the last great modern style arose, the main content of which was the rejection of the realism of the Wanderers and eclecticism in architecture, the cult of beauty as the only value and the desire for an artistic synthesis of all types of art. Such a variety of intellectual searches was, according to the philosopher N.A. Berdyaev, a consequence of “the liberation of spiritual culture from the oppression of social utilitarianism of the 60s and 70s.”
In general, Russian philosophy XIX century was a reflection of the ideological search for the historical path of development of Russia.
In the confrontation between the ideas of the Slavophiles and the Westernizers, the Western orientation ultimately won, but it was transformed on Russian soil into the theory of Marxism-Leninism.
LIST OF USED SOURCES
1 https://ru.wikipedia.org/
2 http://mgup-vm.ru/kulturology/doklad06.html
3 Lisovsky V. G. Architecture of Russia. The search for a national style / V. G. Lisovsky Publisher: Bely Gorod, Moscow, 2009 568s.
4 History of Philosophy: Proc. for universities / V.P. Kokhanovsky (ed.), V.P. Yakovlev (ed.). Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 1999. 573p.
5 V. V. Mironov. Philosophy: a textbook for universities / Philosophy. Ed. Mironova V.V. M.: Norma, 2005. 928 p.
6 Alekseev Petr Vasilievich. History of Philosophy: Textbook for students. universities studying philosophy / Moscow state. un-t im. M.V. Lomonosov. Faculty of Philosophy. Moscow: TK Velby; Prospect, 2005. 236p.
7 Volovich V.I., Gorlach N.I., Golovchenko G.T., Gubersky L.V., Kremen V.G. History of philosophy: Textbook for higher education / N.I. Gorlach (ed.). H.: Konsum, 2002. 751p.
8 Zenkovsky Vasily Vasilyevich. History of Russian Philosophy: In 2 vols. M.: Ast, 1999. 542p. T. 1 542s.
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An inquisitive pilgrim has reached the "end of the world" and is trying to see: what is there, beyond the edge?
concept "picture of the world" denotes a figurative-conceptual picture of the universe, in which man and mankind seek to determine their place. Pictures of the world, assigning a certain place in the Universe to a person and thereby helping him to navigate in being, are the result of the spiritual and practical activity of people. Scientific, religious and philosophical pictures of the world give their vision of the world and the place of man in it.Very important point picture of the world is what it is built around, what is its semantic center.
Scientific picture of the world built around objects independent of man; its core is the universal reality.
Religious picture of the world in the center puts the ratio of the heavenly and the earthly, the sphere of the human and the sphere of the divine.
main topic philosophical picture of the world - the ratio of man and the world, taken in all aspects: ontological, cognitive, value, activity.
2. Religious picture of the world.
Michelangelo B. Part of the fresco on the ceiling Sistine Chapel in the Vatican depicting the scene of the creation of Adam
The historical significance of religion consisted in the fact that in both slave-owning and feudal societies it contributed to the formation and strengthening of new public relations and the formation of strong centralized states. Meanwhile, there have been religious wars in history.
In our time, religion continues to be one of the most common worldviews, which occupies a significant place in the life of any society. Both mythology and religion emerged from the practical relationship of man to the world and were aimed at overcoming the alienation and hostility of the outside world. Although they outlined the main worldview problems, however, they could not provide a person with an awareness of the complexity of his social life.
Religious picture of the world - a set of the most general religious ideas about the world, its origin, structure and future, an important element of the religious worldview. The religious picture of the world in a certain form is inherent in all religions, developed in detail in developed religious systems. The main sign of the religious picture of the world is the division of the world into the supernatural and the natural, with the absolute domination of the first over the second. The religious picture of the world of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and a number of other religions is characterized by three-tier structure of the world (heaven, Earth, underworld), the opposition of the heavenly (perfect) to the earthly (mortal), it is inherent geo- And anthropocentrism . The most important elements of the religious picture of the world - creationism (religious doctrine of the creation of the world by God from nothing) and eschatology (religious doctrine of the end of the world). The religious picture of the world is contained in the "holy books" (Vedas, Bible, Koran). The Christian picture of the world was formed by synthesizing the biblical ideas of creation and God's providence, the cosmological elements of Greek philosophy, and a number of natural-scientific ideas of antiquity that were included in Ptolemy's geocentric system. The traditional religious picture of the world was destroyed by the scientific picture of the world created by natural science.
3. Scientific picture of the world. Historical types of scientific picture of the world.
Scientific picture of the world - is a set of theories that collectively describe known to man the natural world, an integral system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of the universe. Since the picture of the world is a systematic formation, its change cannot be reduced to any single, albeit the largest and most radical discovery. As a rule, we are talking about a whole series of interconnected discoveries in the main fundamental sciences. These discoveries are almost always accompanied by a radical restructuring of the research method, as well as significant changes in the very norms and ideals of scientificity.
There are three such clearly and unequivocally fixable radical changes in the scientific picture of the world, scientific revolutions in the history of the development of science; it is usually customary to personify them by the names of the three scientists who played the greatest role in the changes taking place.
1) Aristotelian (VI-IV centuries BC) as a result of this scientific revolution, science itself arose, there was a separation of science from other forms of knowledge and exploration of the world, certain norms and models of scientific knowledge were created. This revolution is most fully reflected in the works Aristotle . He created formal logic, i.e. the doctrine of proof, the main tool for deriving and systematizing knowledge, developed a categorical conceptual apparatus. He approved a kind of canon for the organization of scientific research (history of the issue, statement of the problem, arguments for and against, justification of the decision), differentiated knowledge itself, separating the sciences of nature from mathematics and metaphysics.
2) Newtonian scientific revolution(XVI-XVIII centuries). Its starting point is the transition from the geocentric model of the world to the heliocentric, this transition was due to a series of discoveries associated with the names N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, J. Kepler, R. Descartes. I. Newton summed up their research and formulated the basic principles of a new scientific picture of the world in general view. Main changes:
1. Classical natural science spoke the language of mathematics, managed to single out strictly objective quantitative characteristics of terrestrial bodies (shape, magnitude, mass, movement) and express them in strict mathematical patterns.
2. The science of modern times has found a powerful support in the methods of experimental research, phenomena under strictly controlled conditions.
3. The natural science of that time abandoned the concept of a harmonious, complete, expediently organized cosmos, according to their ideas, the Universe is infinite and united only by the action of identical laws.
4. Mechanics becomes the dominant feature of classical natural science, all considerations based on the concepts of value, perfection, goal-setting were excluded from the scope of scientific research.
5. In cognitive activity, a clear opposition of the subject and object of research was implied. The result of all these changes was a mechanistic scientific picture of the world based on experimental mathematical natural science.
3) Einstein's revolution (the turn of the XIX-XX centuries). It was determined by a series of discoveries (the discovery of the complex structure of the atom, the phenomenon of radioactivity, the discrete nature of electromagnetic radiation, etc.). As a result, the most important premise of the mechanistic picture of the world was undermined - the conviction that with the help of simple forces acting between immutable objects, all natural phenomena can be explained.
Fundamentals new painting world:
1. General and special relativity ( new theory space and time has led to the fact that all frames of reference have become equal, so all our ideas make sense only in a certain frame of reference. The picture of the world has acquired a relative, relative character, the key concepts of space, time, causality, continuity have changed, the unambiguous opposition of subject and object has been rejected, perception has become dependent on the frame of reference, which includes both subject and object, the method of observation, etc.)
2. Quantum mechanics (it revealed the probabilistic nature of the laws of the microworld and the irremovable corpuscular-wave dualism in the very foundations of matter). It became clear that it will never be possible to create an absolutely complete and reliable scientific picture of the world, any of them has only relative truth.
Later, within the framework of the new picture of the world, there were revolutions in the private sciences, in cosmology (the concept of a non-stationary Universe), in biology (the development of genetics), etc. Thus, throughout the 20th century, natural science has greatly changed its appearance in all its sections.
4. Philosophical picture of the world.
If a person wants to understand the meaning of his life, he does not turn to scientific treatises. Scientific knowledge can explain a lot to him, but it is not through this knowledge that he will move towards his ideals. They lie on a different plane. Comprehension of the meaning of life is an essential characteristic of philosophical knowledge. Philosophy enables a person to find himself in the boundless ocean of events, to deeply realize not only the external, but also his own spiritual world, to comprehend what his purpose is in the stream of being. No other science teaches what one must be in order to be human.
The main question of philosophy is that the relation "man - the world" is transformed into the relation "spirit - body", "consciousness - nature", "thinking - being". Any solution to this question forms the basis philosophy. In the history of philosophy, there are several options for solving the problem of the relationship between the material and the spiritual, which is the first side of the main issue of philosophy. However, all of them are either monistic (based on the recognition of one principle of the world) or dualistic (based on the recognition of two principles of the world). Yes, and philosophical monism is heterogeneous. Throughout the existence of philosophical knowledge, he acted as materialism and as idealism in its two varieties: objective and subjective. Materialism proceeds from the recognition of the primacy of the material principle. Idealism declares the spiritual to be primary, determining. However, idealists disagree on its interpretation. Some believe that the spiritual principle, which determines everything that happens in the world of phenomena, exists in the form of human consciousness, sensations, perceptions, ideas. These are subjective idealists. Others represent this spiritual in the form of nobody's, the so-called absolute consciousness, spirit, pure idea, etc. These are objective idealists. The main question of philosophy includes, in addition to the question of the primacy of the material and spiritual, also the question of the cognitive attitude of man to the world. Materialists consider the knowledge of the world as a reflection in the human mind of a reality independent of it. Idealists, on the other hand, oppose the theory of reflection, interpret cognitive activity either as a combination of sensory data, or as the construction of objects of knowledge through a priori (pre-experimental) categories, or as a purely logical process of obtaining new conclusions from existing axioms and assumptions.
The question of how the world works, what connections and relations exist between objects and phenomena, processes, what laws characterize this world in terms of movement and development deserves due attention. In other words - the question of the general structure of the world and the state in which the latter is.
This question found its solution in two basic concepts - dialectical and metaphysical. Dialectics- the concept according to which the world in its structure is a single whole, where everything is interconnected and interdependent, and from the point of view of the state - it is in motion, development.
According to metaphysics, the world in its structure is a set of objects, phenomena, processes that are not interconnected by mutual transitions. As regards the state of the world, metaphysics recognizes movement and development only within limited limits, as decrease and increase, as repetition.
Solving the problem of the general structure of the world, which includes both a person and the state in which he is, is a relatively independent issue. It can be solved in principle in the same way with a different approach to the main question of philosophy. That is, materialism can be metaphysical and dialectical. Similarly, idealism can be both metaphysical and dialectical.
Consequently, materialism and idealism, metaphysics and dialectics are different ways of revealing the relation "man - the world". This attitude is a universal problem for all epochs of human history - from the emergence of man until his existence ceases. Although at each stage of history it is filled with specific content and is perceived differently, its comprehension is a necessary condition for the life of society in its progressive development.
The types and methods of philosophical understanding of the world are determined by general philosophical paradigms (paradigm - the original conceptual scheme, a model for setting problems and solving them, research methods that prevail over a certain historical period in the scientific community).
It is they who focus attention on certain aspects of eternal philosophical problems. These philosophical paradigms include ontologism paradigm And epistemological paradigm. They can be found in any historical type philosophy, while one of them is able to play a dominant role.
1) The paradigm of ontologism orients a person in cognition and activity to the world outside of a person, to the world not only objective, but also absolute, with which a person must coordinate both his mind and his goals and values.
2) The paradigm of epistemologism originates in ancient Greek philosophy, but really develops in modern times on the basis of the thesis of Rene Descartes “I think, therefore I am”. It focuses on the justification of the reliability of scientific knowledge. Under its influence, such features of modern European culture as rationalism, technologism, and pragmatism developed.
Thus, religion, science and philosophy create different pictures of the world, reflecting the complex and diverse real world.
Questions for self-examination and reflection
1) Define the concept of "Picture of the world".
2) What is at the center of the religious picture of the world?
3) What characterizes the scientific picture of the world?
4) What is the Newtonian scientific revolution?
5) Indicate the discoveries that changed the picture of the world?
Philosophers cards
| Claudius Ptolemy
(c. 100 - c. 170) - late Hellenistic astronomer, astrologer, mathematician, mechanic, optician, music theorist and geographer. He lived and worked in Alexandria of Egypt (reliably - in the period 127-151), where he carried out astronomical observations. The author of the classic antique monograph "Almagest", which was the result of the development of ancient celestial mechanics and contained an almost complete collection of astronomical knowledge of Greece and the Middle East of that time. He left a deep mark in other areas of knowledge - in optics, geography, mathematics, and also in astrology. | |
| Sir Isaac Newton (December 25, 1642 - March 20, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of classical physics. The author of the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy", in which he outlined the law of universal gravitation and the three laws of mechanics, which became the basis of classical mechanics. Developed differential and integral calculus, color theory, laid the foundations of modern physical optics, created many other mathematical and physical theories. Wikipedia |
Glossary
Global problems of our time - the main, key problems, the solution of which depends on the very existence, preservation and development of civilization. Distinctive feature modern civilization- the growth of global threats and problems. We are talking about the threat of thermonuclear war, the growth of armaments, the unreasonable waste of natural resources, disease, hunger, poverty, and so on. Of no small importance in the concept of global problems is the question of their objective "hierarchy", i.e. about the priority of some of them in relation to others and their subordination.
Political science. Dictionary. http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/politology/38/Global
Ecological crisis - a special type of ecological situation, when the habitat of one of the species or population changes in such a way that calls into question its further survival
Wikipedia http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/703793
A crisis- An abrupt change that occurs against our will. A crisis may or may not be beneficial, but it is almost always difficult and painful. A crisis is about making a decision or making an assessment. This is indeed a decisive moment, but not because it depends on our decision whether there will be a crisis or not, but because the crisis forces us to make a decision or decides for us. Crisis states are, for example, adolescence or agony.
Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville http://philosophy_sponville.academic.ru/935/Crisis
Search for definitions - Korenev E.
