Expresses the problem of existence in its general form. The critical function of philosophy is expressed in the desire "to question everything. The subject of consciousness can be
1. Questions “Does the world exist by itself or does it exist from God? What underlies the changes taking place in the world? What are the main laws and driving forces of its development? Refer to…
a) philosophical anthropology; c) ontology;
b) epistemology; d) social philosophy.
2. The problem of existence in her general view expresses a philosophical category ...
a) essence; c) being;
b) being; d) existence.
3. The concept of "being" is introduced into philosophy:
a) Democritus; c) Aristotle;
b) Parmenides; d) Pythagoras.
4. A form of being that does not have its own essence and exists only as an interaction of other forms is called ...
a) consciousness; c) substance;
b) virtuality; d) matter.
5. Mathematical theorems and laws of formal logic have _____ existence.
a) objectively ideal; c) subjective-ideal;
b) material; d) virtual.
6. The identification of being as an "all-encompassing reality" - and substance - as the basis of the universe - is observed in philosophy ...
a) New Time; c) antiquity;
b) the Middle Ages; d) Renaissance.
7. The thesis “Being is, and there is only being; there is no non-existence, and it is impossible to conceive of it, ”said ...
a) Protagoras; c) Pythagoras;
b) Parmenides; d) Hegel.
8. The objective reality given to us in sensations, according to V. I. Lenin, is called ...
a) the world; c) nature;
b) the universe; d) matter.
9. Physical vacuum, elementary particles, fields, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, the Universe belong to…
a) biosystems; c) social systems;
b) systems inanimate nature; d) virtual systems.
10. In the formation of modern scientific picture world, a prominent place belongs to __________, which proves the ability of nature to self-organize, self-order.
a) synergy; c) apologetics;
b) eclecticism; d) dialectics.
11. The form of being, which characterizes the extent, structure of any material systems, is denoted by the concept:
a) time; c) matter;
b) space; d) movement.
12. The substantial concept of space-time is characterized by:
a) space and time are connected with each other and with matter;
b) space and time are a priori forms of sensibility of the cognizing subject;
c) space and time are the product of a spiritual non-human principle;
d) space and time are not connected with each other and with matter.
13. The form of being, expressing the duration and sequence of changes in the states of material objects, is called ...
a) movement c) time;
b) space; d) development.
14. The natural-science substantiation of the connection between matter, motion, space and time is given ...
a) the theory of relativity; c) classical physics;
b) synergy; d) physicalism.
15. The idea of a four-dimensional space-time continuum was first proposed...
a) T. Kalutsey; c) O. Klein;
b) A. Einstein; d) I. Newton.
16. The philosophical theory about the universality of the movement and development of all things is called:
a) synergy; c) dialectics;
b) socionics; d) metaphysics.
17. Synergy is:
a) the doctrine of the development of knowledge, society and man; c) speculative philosophy of nature.
b) the theory of self-organization of complex systems; d) the doctrine of the supersensible foundations of being;
18. The concept of "measure" is associated with the law:
a) mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
b) transformation and conservation of energy;
c) interpenetration of opposites;
d) negation of negation.
19. According to dialectics, the source of development is ...
a) the desire to establish a balance;
b) external impact on the object;
c) any change to the object;
d) resolution of internal contradictions.
20. From point of view dialectical materialism, the laws of dialectics ...
a) there are theoretical constructions that do not reveal themselves in objective reality;
b) have a universal character;
c) reflect the self-development of the absolute spirit;
d) are realized only in living nature.
21. The inherent ability of a person to purposefully and generally reproduce reality in an ideal form is denoted by the concept ...
a) sensation c) consciousness;
b) mind; d) introspection.
22. Identification and evaluation of oneself as a thinking, feeling and acting being is:
a) self-awareness; c) understanding of the world;
b) attitude to the world; d) judgment.
23. Unconscious and uncontrolled by human consciousness, mental processes and phenomena are called -
a) emotions c) the unconscious;
b) Eros; d) Thanatos.
24. The mental activity of animals differs from the mental activity of humans in that it:
a) serves as a regulator of adaptive behavior; c) is social in nature;
b) due to biological patterns; d) is aimed at transforming the world.
25. From the point of view of representatives of psychoanalysis, the basis of human culture is ...
a) conscious forms of human transformative activity;
b) the conflict between the biological nature of man and the requirements of society;
c) the process of transforming a person's social instinct into socially acceptable forms of activity;
d) the spiritual essence of a person, manifested in creativity.
26. The basic mental structures common to all mankind, Jung K. G. called:
a) stereotypes; c) complexes;
b) algorithms; d) archetypes.
27. When considering consciousness from the point of view of its connection with the material carrier, the philosophical and ____________ view of consciousness is often replaced.
a) ordinary; c) aesthetic;
b) mythological; d) natural science.
28. The main feature of consciousness from the point of view of phenomenology is:
a) intentionality; c) ideality;
b) materiality; d) subjectivity.
29. The creativity of consciousness is expressed in ...
a) the ability to create something new; c) lack of sense in actions;
b) lack of ability to create something new; d) giving meaning to the subject of consciousness.
30. The Christian understanding of the meaning of life is...
a) transforming the world; c) salvation of the soul;
b) accumulation of knowledge; d) material enrichment.
31. A person lives in two worlds: natural and ...
a) aesthetic; c) ethnic;
b) class; d) social.
32. From the point of view of existentialism, a person thinks about the meaning of life in ...
a) a state of intoxication; c) when turning to faith;
b) out of boredom; d) in a border situation.
33. The concept of existence was introduced to denote:
a) the existence of things and processes; c) a specifically human way of being;
b) virtual reality; d) being of nature.
34. In the philosophy of existentialism, the true way of being is:
a) human immersion in the world of things; c) teaching the principles of "wise life";
b) being in the face of death; d) following the universal cosmic law.
35. The meaning of a person's life is not in saving the soul and serving God, but in serving society, they argued:
a) Plato, Hegel, Marxists; c) Camus, Sartre, Jaspers;
b) Lyotard, Derrida, Ricoeur; d) Tertullian, Augustine, Aquinas.
36. The doctrine of man as a social being was developed in philosophy:
a) creationism; c) existentialism;
b) positivism; d) Marxism.
37. The question of the meaning of life is generated by thinking about whether it is worth living if every person ...
a) corrupt; c) unspiritual;
b) ugly; d) mortal.
38. Personality as a subject of social relations is characterized by ...
a) activity; c) objectivity;
b) collectivity; d) reversibility.
39. Personality as a special individual entity became the object of philosophical analysis in the period ...
a) Renaissance; c) New time;
b) the Middle Ages; d) antiquity.
40. In the article by F. Engels "The role of labor in the process of turning a monkey into a man" the so-called __________ theory of the origin of man, consciousness, language is set forth.
a) theological; c) mutagenic;
b) labor; d) naturalistic.
41. Comprehension by the consciousness of the diverse aspects and connections of being is:
a) initiation; c) practice;
b) knowledge; d) creativity.
42. Collective and individual carrier cognitive activity called _________ knowledge:
a) the subject; c) purpose;
b) means; d) an object;
43. The result of the process of cognition, which appears as a set of information about something, is:
a) wisdom c) truth;
b) intelligence; d) knowledge.
44. Deliberate distortion by the subject of reality is interpreted as ...
a) an explanation c) lie;
b) delusion; d) truth.
45. Misunderstanding means:
a) dependence on someone else's opinion; c) limited knowledge;
b) deliberate distortion of information; d) discrepancy between knowledge and reality.
46. Only practice is the goal, source and criterion of knowledge and creativity, the representatives argued:
a) Marxism; c) solipsism;
b) Thomism; d) existentialism.
47. According to the representatives of _________, "knowledge about things is changeable and fluid, and therefore it is possible to say about any thing in two ways and in the opposite way."
a) skepticism c) agnosticism;
b) epistemological optimism; d) dogmatism.
48. The position of agnosticism is represented in the teaching:
a) Descartes R.; c) Aristotle;
b) Kant I.; d) Bacon F.
49. Establish a correspondence between the concepts of truth and their main provisions:
1. “True is such knowledge that has good consequences for human life and which can be successfully applied in practice.
2. Truth is the correspondence of knowledge to objective reality.
3. Truth is the consistency of knowledge with a more general, encompassing system of knowledge.
A. Coherent
B. Pragmatic
S. Korrespondenskaya
50. The main difference between scientific and non-scientific scientific knowledge lies in…
a) objectivity; c) theoretical;
b) rationality; d) systematic.
51. The main methods of empirical research are ... (2 correct answers)
a) scientific observation; d) interpretation;
b) description of the object; e) formalization;
c) axiomatic method; f) experiment.
52. The main forms of theoretical knowledge include ... (3 correct answers)
a) a problem c) law;
b) hypothesis; d) convention;
e) observation.
53. Ideas and concepts that speak on behalf of science, imitate its features, but do not meet the standards of science, refer to:
a) philosophy; c) pseudoscience;
b) parascience; d) paradigm.
54. The philosophical and ideological position of a negative attitude towards science and technology due to their hostility to man and culture is called:
a) antiscientism; c) scientism;
b) humanism; d) nihilism.
55. The process of replacing the old disciplinary matrix with a new paradigm is called...
a) scientific revolution; c) demarcation;
b) verification; d) proliferation.
56. An attempt to distinguish between scientific and unscientific knowledge, defining the boundaries of the field of scientific knowledge is called the problem ...
a) logic; c) demarcation;
b) idealization; d) modernization.
57. Defining the specifics of scientific knowledge, K. Popper put forward the principle ...
a) falsifications; c) unification;
b) codification; d) verification.
58. Modern Western concepts scientific revolutions- as a paradigm shift or research programs - developed ...
a) Kuhn T. and Lakatos I.; c) Lyotard J. and Derrida J.;
b) V. I. Lenin and G. V. Plekhanov; d) Gadamer G. and Heidegger M.
59. The representative of the modern philosophy of science, who believes that the growth of scientific knowledge occurs as a result of the proliferation (reproduction) of theories, hypotheses, is ...
a) P. Feyerabend; c) K. Popper;
b) I. Lakatos; d) O. Comte.
60. A spiritual and material formation relatively independent of nature, generated by various forms of joint activity of people, is called ...
a) the state; c) society;
b) noosphere; d) formation.
61. The idea of linear orientation public life originated in:
a) New time; in the Middle Ages;
b) Renaissance; d) Antiquity.
62. The philosopher who proposed the concept of "axial era" to explain the unity of world history is:
a) Engels F.; c) Jaspers K.;
b) Toynbee A.; d) Hobbes T.
63. From the point of view of A. Toynbee, civilization can avoid destruction if ...
a) a high level of technical development will be achieved;
b) unity in spirit will be achieved;
c) socio-economic problems will be solved;
d) environmental problems will be solved.
64. Match the name of the philosopher and the concept that characterizes his concept of the development of society.
1. K. Jaspers A. World Mind
2. G.F. V. Hegel V. Socio-economic formation
3. K. Marx S. "Axial time"
65. _________ claimed that civilization is the "death of culture".
a) O. Spegler; c) D. Vico;
b) K. Jaspers; d) F. Engels.
66. Having applied materialistic philosophy to the field of history, K. Marx and F. Engels were the creators of:
a) vulgar materialism; c) natural-scientific materialism;
b) historical materialism; d) metaphysical materialism.
67. The growing interdependence of various countries, regions, economic, cultural integration of mankind is expressed in the concept:
a) ideologization; c) globalization;
b) informatization; d) technologization.
68. The international public organization, created in 1968 to analyze the most acute problems of our time, was named:
a) the London club; c) Heidelberg Club;
b) Club of Rome; d) Parisian club.
69. Today, humanity has two possibilities: either to continue the conquest of the surrounding world, sharing the "fate of the dinosaurs", or to survive, having conquered ...
a) other people c) weak countries and peoples;
b) nature; d) oneself, one's aggressiveness and selfishness.
70. Global problems associated with an excessive increase in the population of the Earth, the deterioration of the health of the population, the aging of the population in developed countries, the high birth rate in underdeveloped countries, are called ....
a) political; c) environmental;
b) demographic; d) economic.
71. Problems related to disarmament, prevention of thermonuclear war, world social and economic development are classified as ___________ problems.
a) intersocial; c) natural and social;
b) anthropo-social; d) contrived.
72. Post-industrial society in the context of the "information revolution" is characterized by the concept of ...
a) "information society"; c) "social dynamics";
b) "ideal type of society"; d) "world-historical spirit".
73. The basis of the philosophical picture of the world is the solution of the problem ...
a) knowledge; c) being;
b) values; d) science.
74. The fundamental physical theory created at the beginning of the 20th century to explain micromotions, which underlies the modern scientific picture of the world, is called ...
a) quantum mechanics; c) microelectronics;
b) minimalism; d) organic chemistry.
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The main difference between the position of realism and nominalism was that ... realists recognized the independent existence of common properties, while nominalists did not
The main political system of society is ... State
The main mode of existence of consciousness is ... Knowledge
Main Functions social knowledge are methodological and ... axiological
The basis of the world is consciousness, they believe ... idealists
The founder of the German classical philosophy is... I.Kant
The founder of the doctrine of the atomic structure of matter is ... Democritus
The founder of phenomenology is... E. Husserl
Negation in dialectics is... transition of the system from one state to another, accompanied by the preservation of some elements of the old state
Sensations, perceptions and representations are forms NOT rational cognition
The first systematic exposition of the doctrine of development belongs to... Hegel
The first European university was opened in … Bologna
The question of the meaning of life arises before a person, since man is mortal
A person's experience of himself as a rational spiritual being is associated with ... self-awareness
The transition from one quality to another is called... jump
According to K. Marx, a person is ... ensemble public relations
The cognitive ability of a person, expressing the absolute, universal patterns of reality, is ... intelligence
The position that the earth moves around the sun and is not the center of the universe, proved ... Copernicus
The position that each person can be only an end for another, but not a means, was substantiated ... Kant
He laid the foundation for non-classical philosophy.- ... Schopenhauer
The understanding of freedom as a "conscious necessity" belongs to ... to Hegel
Understanding the course of history as a struggle between the Earthly City and God's City is typical for... Aurelius Augustine
The concept ... is opposite in meaning to the concept of "truth": Lie
The concept of "culture" means primarily ... system of material and spiritual values created by mankind
The concept of "cultural-historical type" was first formulated by ... N.Ya. Danilevsky
The concept of "public consciousness" means ... a set of ideas, views, ideas common to social groups people or society as a whole
The concept of "public consciousness" means a set of ideas, views, ideas common to social groups of people or society as a whole
The concept of "existence" is the central concept philosophical direction …existentialism
The concept of " traditional society" means: pre-capitalist, pre-industrial society
The concepts of "culture" and "society" are correlated as follows ... There is a meaningful connection between them, but they are not identical.
Comprehension by the consciousness of the diverse aspects and connections of being is ... Cognition
The progressive development of society from the lowest levels to the highest is called historical progress
Pragmatists are those who believe that... Only what is useful and beneficial, what brings success is NOT true.
Practice - this is NOT a prediction of the course of events
Philosophy is... Universal in the "world-man" system
The representative of the stage theory of the development of society is ... A. Toffler
The representative of empiricism in the philosophy of modern times was ... Francis Bacon
The representatives of voluntarism are… Schoppenhauer, Nietzsche
The notion according to which natural conditions, climate, terrain completely determine the development of society ... geographical determinism
The ideas of ancient thinkers about the variability of the world are characterized as ... Elemental dialectics
The following statement corresponds to the ideas of the modern scientific picture of the world ... Space and time represent a single continuum
elemental dialectics
Beautiful, harmonious, sublime belong to the categories of... values. aesthetic
The mark of truth is... concreteness
The sign that characterizes the development process is ... NOT amorphous
Principle determinism affirms the universal conditionality and causality of phenomena.
The principles of resolving the antinomy of the individual and the social in a person can be universalism, collectivism and ... individualism
Nature as the otherness of the Absolute idea appears in philosophy... Hegel
The problem of socio-cultural determination of the development of scientific knowledge becomes central for… post-positivism
The problems of economic life are central to philosophy... K. Marx
The problem of existence in its most general, ultimate form is expressed by the philosophical category...
The predictive function of philosophy is... vision of the future
Enlighteners were supporters of the Cult ... Mind
The process of emergence and development of a person as a socio-cultural being is called ... anthropogenesis
The process of comprehending the meaning of something is ... Understanding
The process of moving people from one social group to another is called social mobility*
The process of assimilation by a person of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values is called ... Socialization
The priority of the goals of individuals over public ones affirms individualism *
The branch of philosophy that studies the nature and essence of man is called ... philosophical anthropology
The division of objects into their constituent elements ... Analysis
Arrangement of phenomena according to the degree of complexity. The criterion of complexity is belonging to the corresponding form of motion of matter:
NOT 1-defr2-frozen-scient4-born
The rationalism of R. Descartes lies in his statement...” I think, therefore I am”
Religion is... Belief in the formation of a Supreme Intelligence
Religion sees the meaning of life... outside of life itself
Labor played a decisive role in the formation of man, he believed ... Engels
Club of Rome - it is a combination of global problems of our time
From the standpoint... consciousness is a realm of ideas, feelings, will, independent of material existence, capable of creating and constructing reality. idealism
From the point of view of materialism, the laws of dialectics have... universal character
From the point of view of philosophy, the meaning of life lies in the presence of a person ... values that a person realizes in actions
From the point of view of existentialism, a person thinks about the meaning of life ... in border situations
Self-awareness is... the orientation of a person's consciousness to assess their knowledge, interests, feelings, motives of behavior
Freedom is a tragic human burden, say… existentialism
The system of relationships between people that arises as a result of their joint life is called ... society
The system of norms and rules governing the behavior and communication of people in society is... Morality
The system of examples, procedures and rules applied in order to obtain reliable knowledge is called ... research method
The systematizer of scholasticism and the creator of Thomism is Thomas Aquinas*
The words “Philosophers have only explained the world in various ways, but the point is to change it” belong to ... K. Marx
The meaning of life in the Christian concept is ... serving God
Contemporary Issues humanity as a whole, on the decision of which its further existence depends, are called ... global problems
According to A. Schopenhauer, everything that exists is ... Will
According to Locke, the primary qualities of things are ... NOT extension and form
According to T. Kuhn's concept of scientific revolutions, the change of paradigms in science is…. a revolution that offers a new, incommensurable with the old, paradigm
According to reflection theory, the first and most elementary form of biological reflection is instinctive behavior
The creator of classical psychoanalysis is ... Z. Freud
Solipsism is... a form of subjective idealism
Correspondence between the main sections of philosophy and their content: A xiology - the study of values, A Anthropology is the study of man E tika - the doctrine of morality, G noseology - the study of knowledge ABOUT ntology - at the notion of being, Es tetics - the doctrine of beauty
Correspondence between the main spheres of public life and definitions of their essence:(Political - the exercise by the state of power in society using legal norms and guarantees.Social sphere - the life of people as members of social communities and subjects of relations from the standpoint of social justice, rights and freedoms .Economic sphere - reproduction, storage and distribution of material values, satisfaction of people's material needs .spiritual realm - production, storage and distribution of society's values that can satisfy the needs of the consciousness and worldview of subjects, reproduce their spiritual world)
Correspondence between concepts and their meanings: IN oluntarism-will - higher the principle of social being and the mode of social action, WITH freedom - ability to act independently with knowledge of the matter for the chosen goal, H need - one from signs of a regular connection of phenomena, processes and objects, F atalism - human life is the inevitable realization of the original predestination
Correspondence between concepts and their definitions: A Altruism - affirms compassion for other people and readiness for self-denial in the name of their good and happiness. E vdemonizm - the doctrine of the essence, ways to achieve and criteria for happiness. A sketism - prescribes self-denial to people, the rejection of worldly goods and pleasures . P perfectionism - the doctrine of the constant striving for self-improvement . G Edonism - sees the meaning of human life in receiving pleasure . P ragmatism - sees the meaning of life in achieving success, profit and benefit.
The relationship between the concepts of "movement" and "development" is that ... development is part of the movement
Is extremely theoretical
The specificity of philosophical knowledge lies in the fact that it ... Has an extremely general, theoretical character
The dispute between realists and nominalists is a problem... Universal
A way of philosophizing, the basis of which is the interpretation, understanding of texts is ... hermeneutics
The side of an object that determines its difference or similarity with other objects, called a property
Proponents of dialectical materialism understand matter as... objective reality
Judgment - "consciousness not only reflects the objective world, but also creates it" characterizes ... activity of consciousness
Judgment is a form of thought in which something is affirmed or denied by means of a connection of concepts.
The essence of the ideal is... Reflection of reality in ... images
There are many beginnings of being - they believe ... pluralists
The essence of society, according to the naturalistic concept, is due to natural and cosmic patterns
The essence of consciousness reflects judgment... consciousness is a subjective image of the objective world, it is the result of an active reflection of the world
The essence of man is unity... biological and social
The essence of language is that it is... a sign system that serves to fix, store and transmit information
The sphere of the identity of the subject and object, according to F. Schelling, is ... art
The thesis “Science is the plague of the 20th century” characterizes the meaning of the position… antiscientism
The thesis of the social nature of man defends ... Marxism
The thesis: "Consciousness not only reflects the world, but also creates it" means that... man, relying on the known laws of nature, can change both the natural and social world, create objects that did not exist before man
The theme of freedom as a condition for creativity is one of the central ones in the works: Berdyaev
The theory of natural law was developed by... John Locke
The theory of socio-economic formation was developed by ...
Theory agnosticism denies the possibility of knowing the essence of objects and processes of objective reality. agnosticism
The theory of "two truths" has become widespread in ... late medieval era
The theory that explains the origin of man as a biological species is called ... Anthropogenesis
The term agnosticism means... notion of the unknowable world
The term "non-violence" in the worldview of L. N. Tolstoy means ... doing no harm to another
That which underlies is the essence, philosophers call... Substance
Tragedy human freedom, from the point of view of existentialism, is due to the need NOT practical activities
traditions, customs, rules of conduct, peculiarities of speech, is called ... subculture
Labor and language are social factors in the emergence of... Consciousness
The universal beginning of the philosophical system of I. Fichte is the Kantian principle ... autonomy of will
Likened the human mind to a “blank slate”… Locke
The doctrine in Russian philosophy of the late XIX - early XX centuries about the inseparable unity of man, Earth and space - ... Cosmism
The doctrine of the universal conditionality of objective phenomena is called ... determinism
The doctrine of predestination and the inevitability of fate is called ... Fatalism
The theory of cause and effect is called... determinism
The doctrine of the self-organization of matter is called ... synergy
F. Engels identifies ... the main forms of motion of matter. Five
F. Nietzsche believes: "Man is a rope stretched between an animal and ... superman
The philosopher who believed that matter and form are the basis of being, - this is Aristotle
Philosophy originated in... 7-6c BC
Philosophy is like... Knowledge about the world as a whole….
Plato's philosophy has a character objective idealism
Philosophy, unlike religion, is... theoretical form of understanding being
Philosophy of technology - this is a section of philosophical knowledge that arose later than all the others
The philosopher who divided philosophy into natural theology, natural philosophy and metaphysics is... F. Bacon
Philosophical concept, considering space and time as independent entities, independent of matter and its properties, is called ... substantial
The philosophical concept that considers space and time as an expression of the relationship between material objects is called relational
The philosophical science that studies the general principles of figurative comprehension of the world in the process of human activity is called .. Aesthetics
The philosophical trend that questions the possibility of knowing objective reality is called ... Skepticism
Philosophical doctrine, recognizing spirit and matter as independent, independent principles, is called ... dualism
Form is... interconnection of content elements
The form of the spiritual life of society, based on the figurative perception of the surrounding world, is called ... Art
The form of thinking that singles out and fixes the general, essential properties and relations of objects is called ... concept
The function of philosophy, associated with clarifying the nature of problems that require a change in the cognitive apparatus of particular sciences, is called ... methodological
The nature and form of progressively directed changes is revealed by the law ... Negatives of negation
characteristic feature Russian idealist philosophy is anthropocentrism
A characteristic feature of the modern stage of human development is ... uneven development of individual countries and peoples
A characteristic difference philosophical approach to the study of man from the natural science is ... understanding the essence of man in the unity of his biological, social and spiritual manifestations
The characteristic property of time is... irreversibility
Chronological sequence of stages of anthropogenesis:
4-Cro-Magnon
1-Australopithecine
2-pithecanthropus
3-Neanderthal
5-modern man
The central theme of the philosophy of A. Camus is the question of ... the meaning of human existence
Civilization is a stable community of people united by spiritual traditions, a similar way of life, historical and geographical boundaries. A. Toynbee
ONTOLOGY
Ontology- doctrine of life
The question of the origin of being is connected with understanding the unity and diversity of the world. The existence of a multitude of objects, phenomena, processes and states gives rise to a philosophical problem: is it all one being, emanating from one principle or principle, to which diversity can be reduced as to its essence, or But is there an infinite variety of kinds of being isolated from each other, each having its own essence? Parmenides believed that being is motionless, unchanging and intelligible. Democritus developed the idea of multiple being as an atomic substance.
Ontological positions are connected with the solution of questions about the existence of things, the existence of ideas (consciousness) and the existence of people. The main question of ontology is the question of the relation of being to consciousness: is there an objective reality independent of consciousness, or is being reduced to the content of consciousness?
Monism recognizes the unity of reality and one source of existence as the root cause. Depending on which sphere of being is given priority - nature or spirit, philosophers are divided into materialists and idealists.
Dualism- a view that affirms the coexistence of two different, irreducible entities or substances - spiritual and material. (Descartes)
Pluralism is the view that reality consists of many independent entities that do not form an absolute unity (Leibniz).
Idealistic monism sees the unity of the world in a spiritual, ideal beginning. Distinguish between objective and subjective idealism
Materialistic monism sees the unity of the world in a system of material relations. the world exists outside and independently of human consciousness. A distinction is made between dialectical (Marx) and mechanistic materialism (17th century).
Realism is the most common ontological position that recognizes an objective reality that exists outside the consciousness of the cognizing subject. Realism includes objective idealism, which affirms the independent existence of spiritual reality (the idea of God, mind) (Plato, Hegel), independent of human consciousness, and materialism, which affirms matter, material reality as the primary kind of being.
Dialectical materialism is a philosophical doctrine that affirms the (ontological) primacy of matter and postulates three basic laws of its movement and development: 1) the law of unity and struggle of opposites, 2) the law of the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, 3) the law of negation of negation, a feature of understanding being in dialectical material change is that the concept of being as such is rejected
Subjective idealism is the antipode of realism and considers the world as a complex of ideas, recognizing as real only being, perceived by the consciousness of the subject (spread in the philosophy of modern times). J. Berkeley.
Existentialism(philosophy of existence of the 20th century) asserts a fundamental difference between the existence of man and the existence of things: man is a self-conscious and free reality (Heidegger, Jaspers. Sartre, Camus)
To comprehend ontological issues, philosophy uses special forms of thinking, categories - extremely broad concepts - in order to consider being, existing as such, abstracting from the properties and characteristics of the existing and from its particular varieties. As a rule, such categories are revealed only through each other and are used in pairs. .
The problem of existence in its most general, ultimate form is expressed by the philosophical category of being.
Non-existence - the opposite of being, non-existent, unknowable nothing, Can be considered as absolute - the absence of being as such, emptiness; or as a relative non-existence of a certain thing. In the first case, it can be identified with the concepts of "potential being". "One". "Tao", "meon". "otherness"; in the second case - to serve to determine the boundaries of a particular being.
the central problem of medieval philosophy is the proof of the existence of God
at the core classical concept truth lies the principle of conformity
from the standpoint of agnosticism, essence and phenomenon are dialectically interconnected
From the point of view of sensationalism, sensations are the basis of knowledge.
branch of philosophy that studies being, existence is called ontology
the type of matter that exists exclusively on Earth is called social.
the doctrine according to which the meaning of life is the achievement of happiness is called eudemonism
The specificity of the philosophical approach lies in the fact that a person is considered as a being striving for perfection.
A single representative of the human race without taking into account the characteristics of the individual
The manifestation of the transcendent nature of philosophy includes ... the ability to go beyond human knowledge
The branch of philosophy that studies scientific knowledge is called ... epistemology
The explanatory-informational function, the cultural-educational function refers to the ideological functions.
The methodological functions of philosophy include ... coordinating
The universal beginning of the philosophical system of I. Fichte is the Kantian principle ... of the autonomy of the will
Pierce is a representative of pragmatism - a philosophical trend that criticizes classical philosophy for its abstractness and isolation from the problems of a particular person.
K. Popper is associated with the post-positivist trend in modern philosophy
The representatives of the anti-scientist position in modern Western European philosophy include ... G. Rickert
The problem of existence in its most general, ultimate form is expressed by the philosophical category of being
Development, from the point of view of dialectics, is ... an irreversible, progressive change in objects of the material and spiritual world
The philosophical position that identifies spiritual phenomena with the physical states of the brain is called ... vulgar materialism
The social form of cognition that accompanies man throughout his history is the game.
The leading epistemological problem in the philosophy of modern times is the problem of the relationship between the subject and objective reality.
Knowledge that corresponds to historical conditions, the level of mastering reality, is called relative truth.
According to the principle of verifiability, a sign of scientific knowledge is ... the possibility of its reduction to protocol sentences
The founder of phenomenology is ... E. Husserl
Common in solving the problem of man in Marxism, Freudianism and existentialism is ... the denial of the non-historical essence of man
"Superhuman" in the essence of man saw ... F. Nietzsche
Civilization as a value of all cultures, which has a single universal character, sees ... Jaspers
The doctrine of values is called ... axiology
The transition of an individual or a social object from one social position to another is called social (th) ... mobility
The understanding of freedom as independence from power is characteristic of representatives of ... anarchism
The essence of the transformative function of culture is ... changing nature, society and man
The philosopher who expressed the idea of the influence of technology and electronics on all aspects of public life is ... Z. Brzezinski
The axiological function of philosophy is expressed in the orientation of a person towards certain values, the development of these universal values.
The essence of the critical function of philosophy is ... understanding the achievements of culture, analyzing mistakes, illusions
The following statement corresponds to the ideas of the modern scientific picture of the world: Space and time are a single continuum.
The philosopher who first formulated the problem of being and non-being in philosophy is ... parmenides
Manifestation divine beginning in a person from the position of the philosophy of the Renaissance is ... creativity
The basic laws of _________ were formulated by G. Hegel. - DIALECTICS
The concept of "existence" is the central concept of the philosophical direction ... existentialism
The materialism of the 17th century had a _______ character. mechanistic
One-dimensionality, homogeneity, irreversibility - the properties of such an attribute of matter as ... time
Dialectics in its development relies primarily on ... natural science
From the point of view of solipsism, consciousness always deals with ... the subjective Self
An indirectly sensory image of an object, created on the basis of perception, is called ... representation
The limited possibilities of cognition by the historical conditions of the life of society characterize such a property of truth as ... procedural
The section of philosophical knowledge, the subject of which is the general patterns and trends of scientific knowledge, is called ... epistemology
The initial step of scientific research is… formulating a problem
In Taoism, the meaning of life lies in ... a person's desire for naturalness, closeness to nature
The main feature of the modern development of society, from the point of view of the theory of modernism, is ... the introduction into life of the achievements of Western culture
F. Nietzsche understands culture as ... the lifestyle of the people
The idea of improving human qualities as the basis for overcoming the global crisis was expressed by ... A. Peccei
The philosophical doctrine of values is ... axiology
The ideological function of philosophy ... contributes to the formation of a holistic view of the world
Philosophy, unlike religion, is ... a theoretical form of understanding being
The ancient philosopher who created the concept of ethical intellectualism, identified virtue with knowledge, was ... Socrates
The largest representative of patristics is ... Augustine Aurelius
The theory of natural law was developed by ... John Locke
The sphere of the identity of the subject and object, according to F. Schelling, is ... art
The philosophical direction, which considers that the essence of man in its reality is a set of social relations, is called ... Marxism
The branch of philosophy that studies beings is called ... ontology
The natural science substantiation of the unity of matter, motion, space and time is given in the theory of ... relativity
The laws of dialectics formulated by G. Hegel do not include the law of ... the unity and struggle of opposites
The emergence of fundamentally new images and ideas in the mind is associated with such a person’s cognitive ability as ... intuition
In epistemology, the concept of "truth" is applicable to ... knowledge, due to the properties of an object
The modeling method assumes the presence of _______ properties between the object under study and its model. common essential
In the philosophy of the New Age, a person as a unity of two substances - body and spirit - appears in the teachings of ... R. Descartes
The principles of resolving the antinomy of the individual and the public in a person can be universalism, collectivism and ... individualism
Personality is seen as the highest value in the philosophy of ... personalism
The polylinearity of social progress was defended by ... N.Ya. Danilevsky
Culture from the standpoint of axiology appears as ... a system of values and ideals
TO philosophical ideas and principles can be attributed ... the ideals of humanism, freedom and justice
The subject of study of social philosophy is ... the essence of society, the specifics of its being
A common function for philosophy and religion is ... existential
Nature as another being of the Absolute idea appears in the philosophy of ... G. Hegel
Albert Camus is a representative of ... existentialism
The most prominent representatives of Russian conservatism include ... being
Subjective idealism differs from objective ... by accepting the consciousness of the subject, human sensations as primary
The main functions of social knowledge are methodological and ... axiological
The form of thinking that singles out and fixes the general, essential properties and relations of objects is called ... the concept
Dogmatism declares some positions or whole teachings ... true. absolute
Indicate the judgment that expresses the unity of the biological and social determination of a person. The social properties of a person are formed on the basis of biological ones.
Self-organization as a factor in the development of a social system, is affirmed by ... synergetics
The main features of Eastern civilization include ... the dominance of traditions
The representatives of postmodern philosophy include ... J. Deleuze
The representative of Westernism in Russian philosophical thought is ... V. Belinsky
The basic principles of being that determine the structure of the world are studied by ... ontology
A feature of the understanding of being in dialectical materialism is that ... the concept of being as such is discarded
According to the dialectical materialist concept of development, chance is ... the realization of one of the many possibilities
The ability to extract and process information allows a person to operate not with the objects themselves, but with representing ... signs
Direct comprehension of the integrity of the object acts as ... understanding
According to the concept of scientific revolutions by T. Kuhn, the change of paradigms in science is ... a revolution that offers a new, incommensurable with the previous paradigm
The “duality” of human essence is most acutely manifested in ... the antinomy of spirit and body
The process of assimilation by a person of a certain system of knowledge, norms and values is called ... socialization
Culture in a broad sense is ... the transformative activity of man and its results
The idea of suppressing sensual nature, refusing pleasures in order to release internal energy is characteristic of ... asceticism
The subject of study of social philosophy is ... the essence of society, the specifics of its being
The profane and sacred areas of being are characteristic of the __________ picture of the world. religious
The main difference between the position of realism and nominalism was that ... realists recognized the independent existence of common properties, while nominalists did not
The philosophical system of K. Marx is based on the principles of ... dialectical materialism
The basis of the human psyche, according to Z. Freud, is ... "It"
The branch of philosophy that studies beings is called ... ontology
They can be inductive and deductive. conclusions
The first thinker to raise the question of the difference between philosophy and other fields of knowledge was ... Aristotle
The subject of study of social philosophy is ... being, forms and ways of being of the world
The predictive function of philosophy is expressed in the following ... to predict the future course of events
The profane and sacred areas of being are characteristic of the __________ picture of the world. mechanistic scientific
Plato's philosophy has the character of ... subjective idealism
The main question of philosophy is formulated as a question about the relationship ... of man and the world
2. Science, investigating the first principles and causes, was named by Aristotle... metaphysics / 1st phil-I /
3. Justification of the independence of science from philosophy is engaged in ... positivism
Most early form spiritual and practical exploration of the world by mankind is considered ... religion / mythology /
F. Engels called the question of the relationship of thinking to being, spirit to nature the main question of ... philosophy
“Religion exists insofar as God exists and his creation is a person who feels the presence of the Creator,” say ... theism
As a system of views on the world and the place of a person in it, philosophy acts as ... the theory of the basis of worldview
The spiritual activity of a person associated with the desire for wisdom is realized in ... philosophy
Choose the correct relationship between the concepts of "philosophy" and "science": ... Philosophy is the methodology of science
Structure of philosophy
1. The most common questions of being in philosophy are explored by ... an anthology
2. Gnoseology is a philosophical doctrine about ... knowledge
3. The philosophical doctrine of values and their nature is called ... axiology
4. Philosophy, studied in the process of its prehistory, emergence, formation and development, is ... the history of philosophy
5. Philosophical anthropology- this is a philosophical doctrine about ... a person
6. social philosophy- this is the most generalized knowledge about (b) ... society
7. The study of society as a special kind of reality is engaged in ... social philosophy
8. In modern philosophy, the doctrine of scientific knowledge is called ... episemology
The study of the essence and origin of morality, meaning moral standards engaged in a person's life...
The basic laws and form of thinking are studied ... in logic
The comprehension of ideas about the beautiful and the ugly, the comic and the tragic in human life and society is engaged in ...
The question of what is truth and what are its criteria is considered in ...
Functions of Philosophy
1. The theoretical core, the core of the spiritual culture of man and society is called ... philosophy
The formation of a holistic picture of the world and the existence of a person in it is associated with the ________ function of philosophy.
Philosophical knowledge used in science, politics, education, etc. as a guide in spiritual and practical - transformative activities, acts as ...
Philosophy, helping the individual to find a positive and deep meaning of life, to navigate in crisis situations, realizes its _________ function.
When philosophy teaches not to accept or reject anything at once without deep and independent reflection and analysis, then its activity is connected with _____________ function.
The prognostic ________ function of philosophy is based on its ability, in conjunction with science, to predict the general course of the development of being.
Developing certain ideas about values, forming a social ideal, philosophy performs an axiological _______ function.
The substantiation of the value of a person and his freedom, the solution of the question of the meaning of life is connected with __ worldview __________ function.
Genesis of philosophy
1. If Eastern philosophy is characterized as mystical, then European as ... rationalistic
2. Modern Philosophy, which denies the rationality of the world, its natural character, is characterized as ... irrational
3. The emergence of modern non-classical irrationalist philosophy is associated with the names ... Nicia
4. The Greek words phileo - love and sophia - wisdom gave rise to the term ... philosophy
5. As an independent spiritual and cultural education, philosophy arose ... in ancient Greece
According to legend, the first who refused to call himself a sage, but only a wise man, i.e. philosopher, was ... Pythagoras
Philosophy arose in the period ... from the 7th century. BC. By 6 AD
The first European philosopher who raised the question of the origin of the world is ... Thales
Ancient Greek philosophy is born as ... rational.
The principle of retribution in Indian philosophy is called ... karma
The doctrine of the "noble husband" was developed by ... Confucius
Individual spirituality in Indian philosophy is called ... aktan
Karma is ... the law of retribution in individual religions and religions of philosophy, def. The nature of the new birth of reincarnation
The founder of Taoism is: Lao Tzu
According to Buddhism, life is... suffering
The "Four Noble Truths" are at the heart of... Buddhism
Reorientation ancient philosophy from the theme of nature to the theme of man is connected with the name ... Socrates
The first Greek and at the same time the first European philosopher - ... Thales
An outstanding thinker and scientist of Antiquity, the creator of the Lyceum - ... Aristotle
The Sophists and Socrates entered the history of ancient philosophy with their focus on the problem ... of man
The number is recognized as the basis of being in school: ... Pythagoras
A philosopher who believed that matter and form are the basis of being: ... Aristotle
The ancient philosopher who created logic ... Aristotle
A philosopher who believed that the basis of being is the transcendent idea of the Good: ... Plato
The classical period in ancient philosophy is associated with the names ... Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
The saying "Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer" belongs to ... Aristotle
“Know thyself”, called ... Thales / Epicurus /
The development of "maieutics" as a way to achieve the truth is associated with the name ... Socrates
medieval philosophy
1. According to __realism________, singular things have a true existence, and general concepts are “names” for designating them
2. The value of knowledge as a means to strengthen faith in the Middle Ages was substantiated by ... Augustine
3. The opposition of knowledge and faith, the assertion of their incompatibility in the Middle Ages is associated with the name of ... Tertullian
4. Philosophy in the Middle Ages occupied a subordinate position in relation to ... RELIGION
5. The most important feature of the philosophical worldview in the Middle Ages is recognized ... theocentrism / faith and reason /
The most important topic for medieval philosophy was ... GOD
The main provisions of the Christian religion were formulated by the thinkers of the era of the "fathers of the Church", i.e. - ...geologists
IX - XIV centuries in medieval European philosophy are called the stage ... scholasticism
Five rational proofs for the existence of God were given by...F. Aquinas
The doctrine of the creation of the world by God, immediately and from Nothing is called ... creationism
Christian philosophy is inextricably linked with _provedcialism _________, according to which everything in the history and destinies of people is predetermined by the will of God
The age-old dispute of medieval thinkers about "universals", i.e. general concepts, divided them into two main camps: realists and nominalists
Medieval scholasticism is focused on teaching ... the desire to streamline and accessible Christian dogma
Philosophy of the Renaissance
1. The ideological trend that appeared in the Renaissance is called ... humanism
The Renaissance is characterized by ... anthropocentrism
The attention of Renaissance thinkers is directed mainly to ... a person
Questions of the philosophy of politics during the Renaissance were developed ... campanella, More
The creator of "Utopia", describing the picture of an ideal society without private property, is ... T.Mor
The German cardinal, whose teaching on the coincidence of opposites contributed to the rejection of the geocentric model of the world: ... Cusan
The Renaissance became a denial of medieval ... scholasticism
At the heart of the natural philosophy of the Renaissance lies ... pantheism
Philosophy of the New Age
1. Problems of the theory of knowledge, the search for a scientific method, become central in European philosophy ... of modern times
2. Representatives of rationalism in the philosophy of the 17th century are ... Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza
3. Representatives of empiricism in the philosophy of the 17th century are ... thomas, hobbes, berkeley, young
4. The ancestor of German classical philosophy is ... Kant
5. A new type of dialectics, based not on idealism, but on materialism, was created in the middle of the 19th century ... by Marx and Engels
6. The turn from classical philosophy to non-classical and irrational is associated with such names as ... molengauer, nitsia, kjer
Sensationalism is a doctrine directly related to: sensations, feelings
The greatest merit of German classical philosophy is associated with the development of: dialectic
The teachings of K. Marx and F. Engels are characterized as ... an ideal, materialism
The philosophical position of J. Berkeley and D. Hume is characterized as: skepticism
The teachings of L. Feuerbach are characterized as ... anthropologism
The rationale for the boundaries of the human mind in the knowledge of the world was given .... Kant
The central concept of Hegel's philosophy...absol.spirit /dial/
Modern Philosophy of the West
1. The idea of freedom, the priority of individual being over the social are characteristic of ... existentialism
2. Analytic philosophy includes…/neo/positivism
3. The founder of philosophical anthropology of the twentieth century is considered to be: ... Schopenngauer
The emergence of psychoanalysis is associated with the name .... Freud
Domestic philosophy
a. The first ideas about philosophy in Rus' developed after ... the adoption of Christianity
b. The beginning of the materialistic tradition in Russian philosophy was laid by ... Lomonosov
The creator of the religious and philosophical doctrine of unity in Russian philosophy was ... Solovyov
99. Representative of Russian cosmism, the teachings of Russian philosophy of the late XIX - early XX centuries about the inseparable unity of man, Earth and space, ... Fedorov, Vernadsky
100. The ideological trend that substantiated the originality of the historical development of Russia: ... Slavophiles
101. Russian philosopher, the central themes of whose work were the problems of freedom, personality and creativity: Berdyaev
102. At the heart of the philosophy of V. Solovyov lies the idea of .... unity
103. In contrast to Western individualism, the Slavophiles, as the basis of the identity of the Russian civilization, associated with ... catholicity
104. The question of the historical fate of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century was raised .. Chaadaev
Concepts of being
a. Ontology is a branch of philosophy about ... being
b. The problem of being was formulated in philosophy ... antiquity
105. The philosophical concept, according to which the world has a single basis for all that exists, is called ... monism
106. Philosophical doctrine, affirming the equality of two primary principles - material and spiritual, is called ... dualism
238. A philosophical position that presupposes a multitude of initial foundations and beginnings of being is called ... pluralism
107. Mark the correct answer
108. Depending on which sphere of being is given priority - nature or spirit, all philosophers are divided into ... materialists and idealists
109. Along with natural and social being, being stands out: ... physical
110. That which exists by itself and does not depend on anything else, philosophers call ... substance
111. Being as an objective reality is denoted by the term ... matter
112. Objective reality given to us in sensations, according to V.I. Lenin, is called ... matter
113. The concept of ____substance________ denotes the source of the unity and diversity of being, the basis of the universe
114. “Matter did not always exist, and there was a moment when it did not exist at all,” say ... idealists
115. The doctrine of the plurality of substances - monads developed ... Leibniz
116. The doctrine of two substances, "thinking" and "extended" was developed by ... Descartes
117. The doctrine of a single substance, which is the cause of itself, i.e. God and nature at the same time belongs to ... Spinoza
118. The interpretation of being as a "complex of sensations" is characteristic of ... sensationalism
119. Physical vacuum, elementary particles, fields, atoms, molecules, planets, stars, the Universe belong to… atomism/posmism/
120. The way the elements are connected to each other is denoted by the concept: ... organization
121. To consider the world as a hierarchy of complex objects, revealing their integrity, requires the principle ... system
123. The philosophical doctrine of the regular relationship and causality of the phenomena of the world is ... determonism
124. A group of teachings, one way or another denying the reality of causal relationships in nature, society, cognition, or at least not recognizing the universality of such relationships, is designated by the concept ... indetermism
125. Determinism denies the existence of…free will
126. The discovery of laws and patterns is considered the most important task of _scientific ________ knowledge
127. The action of random factors gives laws:
Movement, space, time
a. Space and time are considered as independent, independent entities in the _substantial _________ concept
b. The interdependence of the properties of space and time is affirmed in the _relational __________ concept
c. The idea that space is a void that contains all bodies and does not depend on them was first expressed by thinkers ... of antiquity.
d. The properties of individual consciousness, and not of material objects, are called space and time ... sub.idealists
The form of being, which characterizes the extent, structure of any material systems, is denoted by the concept ... space
The ability of objects, systems to change, to move into a different state is called ... movement.
Any process of change and transition from one state to another is ... movement.
132. The natural science substantiation of the unity of matter, motion, space and time is given ...
In the understanding of space and time, there are _substantial and relational ____________ concepts
From the point of view of the relational concept, space and time: these are relations formed by the interaction of material objects
The substantiation of the substantial concept of space and time is associated with the name: newton
Dialectic of Being
a. The main content of the dialectical concept of development is described by three universal laws, first formulated by ... Tegel
b. The approval of the idea of the development of wildlife is associated with the names: Vernadsky, Darwin, Chardin, Lamarck
c. The ideas of the ancients about the variability of the world are characterized as ... spontaneous dialectics
d. From the point of view of dialectics, the source of development is: contradictions
e. The dialectical law of negation of negation expresses: ... the direction of development
f. Changes in the system in the direction of increasing the level of its orderliness, organization, complexity are characterized as ... post-development
1. The philosophical meaning of the concept of being
2. Being and substance
3. Forms of being. material and ideal
1. Philosophical meaning of the concept of being
Being is one of the most important categories of philosophy. It captures and expresses the problem of existence in its general form. The word "being" comes from the verb "to be". But as a philosophical category, being appeared only when philosophical thought posed the problem of existence and began to analyze this problem. Philosophy has as its subject the world as a whole, the correlation of the material and the ideal, the place of man in society and in the world. In other words, it seeks to clarify the question of the existence of the world and the existence of man. Therefore, philosophy needs a special category that fixes the existence of the world, man, consciousness.
In modern philosophical literature, two meanings of the word "being" are indicated. In the narrow sense of the word, it is an objective world that exists independently of consciousness; in a broad sense, it is everything that exists: not only matter, but also consciousness, ideas, feelings and fantasies of people. Being as an objective reality is denoted by the term matter.
So, being is everything that exists, whether it is a person or an animal, nature or society, a huge Galaxy or our planet Earth, a poet's fantasy or a strict theory of mathematics, religion or laws issued by the state. Being has its opposite concept - non-being. And if being is everything that exists, then non-being is everything that is not.
The word "being" acquires a special meaning in philosophy, which can be understood only by referring to the consideration of the philosophical problems of being.
For the first time this term was introduced into philosophy by the ancient philosopher Parmenides (V - IV centuries BC) to designate and at the same time solve one real problem. During the time of Parmenides, people began to lose faith in the traditional gods of Olympus, mythology increasingly began to be regarded as fiction. Thus, the foundations and norms of the world, the main reality of which were the gods and tradition, collapsed. The world, the Universe no longer seemed solid, reliable: everything became shaky and shapeless, unstable; man has lost his life support. The modern Spanish philosopher Ortega y Gasset wrote that the anxiety and fear that people who had lost the support of life, the reliable world of traditions, faith in the gods, were undoubtedly terrible.
In the depths of human consciousness, despair arose, a doubt that sees no way out of the impasse. It was necessary to find a way out to something solid and reliable. People needed faith in a new force. Philosophy, in the person of Parmenides, realized the current situation, which turned into a tragedy for human existence, reflected the emotional intensity and tried to calm the troubled soul of people, putting the power of reason, the power of thought, in place of the power of the gods. But thoughts are not ordinary, otherworldly about things and objects of the world, about the needs and needs of everyday existence, but absolute thought (later philosophers will call it "pure", meaning such content of thought that is not connected with the empirical, sensual experience of people). Parmenides, as it were, informed people about the discovery by him new strength, the power of Absolute thought, which keeps the world from tipping over into chaos, provides the world with stability and reliability, and therefore, a person can again gain confidence that everything will necessarily be subject to some kind of order.
Necessity Parmenides called Divinity, Truth, providence, destiny, eternal and indestructible. "Everything by necessity" meant that the course of things that had been wound up in the universe could not suddenly, by chance, change; day will always come, to replace night, the sun will not suddenly go out, people will not all die out one fine day, etc. In other words, Parmenides postulated the presence of something behind the things of the object-sensible world that would act as a guarantor of the existence of this world and what the philosopher himself sometimes called the Deity, that which is really there. And this meant that there was no reason for people to despair, caused by the collapse of the stability of the old world.
To designate the described existential-life situation and ways to overcome it, Parmenides introduced the concept and problem of "being" into philosophy. The term itself was taken from the ordinary language of the Greeks, but its content received a new content that does not follow from the meaning of the verb "to be" in its everyday use: to be - to exist in presence. So, the problem of being was a kind of response of philosophy to the needs and demands of the era.
How does Parmenides himself characterize being? Being is what exists beyond the world of sensible things, and this is thought. It is one and invariable, absolutely, it does not have within itself a division into subject and object, it is the entire possible fullness of perfections, among which Truth, Good, Good, Light are in the first place. Defining being as a true being, Parmenides taught that it did not arise, indestructible, unique, motionless, endless in time. It does not need anything, it is devoid of sensual qualities, and therefore it can be comprehended only by thought, by the mind.
To make it easier to understand what being is, for people who are not experienced in the art of philosophical thinking, Parmenides gives the following interpretation of being: being is a ball, a sphere that has no spatial boundaries. Comparing being with a sphere, the philosopher used the belief that developed in antiquity that the sphere is the most perfect and most beautiful form among others. geometric shapes.
Arguing that being is a thought, he had in mind not the subjective thought of a person, but the Logos - the cosmic Reason, through which the content of the world is revealed for a person directly. In other words, it is not a person who discovers the Truth of being, but, on the contrary. The truth of being is revealed to man directly.
2. Being and substance
In the philosophy of modern times, especially in the philosophy of the 17th century, the problems of ontology, i.e. the doctrine of being and substance, expressing a picture of the world that corresponds to a certain level of cognition of reality and is fixed in the system of philosophical categories characteristic of a given era, as well as for a particular philosophical tradition, is given great attention, especially when it comes to movement, space and time.
The task of science and philosophy - to promote the increase of human power over nature, human health and beauty - led to an understanding of the need to study the causes of phenomena, their essential forces. Therefore, the problems of substance and its properties are of interest to literally all philosophers of modern times.
In the philosophy of this period, two approaches to the concept of "substance" appear: the first is associated with the ontological understanding of substance as the ultimate foundation of being; the second - with the epistemological understanding of the concept of "substance", its necessity for scientific knowledge. Gnoseology is a branch of philosophy that studies the problems of the nature of cognition and its possibilities, the relationship of knowledge to reality, explores the general prerequisites for cognition, and identifies the conditions for its reliability and truth.
The founder of the first is the English philosopher Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who gave a qualitative description of substantial forms and identified substance with the form of concrete things. According to the figurative expression of K. Marx, his matter "still smiles with its poetic-sensual brilliance", because it appears in his study as something qualitatively multifaceted, possessing various forms of movement, and "shimmers with all the colors of the rainbow." Matter is endowed with such properties as yellowness, blueness, blackness, warmth, heaviness, etc. These, according to F. Bacon, are the simplest qualities of matter. From various combinations of these "nature" are formed all the diverse things of nature.
F. Bacon reinforced the doctrine of the qualitative heterogeneity of matter with his doctrine of form and motion. The form in his understanding is the material essence of the property belonging to the subject. According to Bacon, form is a kind of movement of material particles that make up the body. But these particles are not atoms. F. Bacon had a negative attitude to the teachings of the ancient philosophers about the atomistic structure of matter, and especially to the teachings about the existence of emptiness. He did not consider space to be empty: for him it was associated with the place constantly occupied by matter. In fact, he identified space with the extension of material objects. Bacon wrote about time as an objective measure of the speed of material bodies. Such an approach to considering the essence of time is worthy of attention, because time is recognized as a certain internal property of matter itself, consisting in the duration of the ongoing changes in material bodies and characterizing the rate of these changes. Thus, time is organically associated with movement. Movement, according to Bacon, is an innate property of matter. As matter is eternal, so is motion eternal. He named 19 types or forms of motion in nature: oscillation, resistance, inertia, striving, tension, vital spirit, torment, etc. These forms were actually characteristics of the mechanical form of motion of matter, which at that time was most fully studied by science. At the same time, F. Bacon sought to investigate and explain the multi-qualitative nature of the material world, correctly feeling that the reason lies in the specifics of the forms of matter movement.
The materialistic views of F. Bacon were systematized and developed in the writings of another English philosopher, Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). Hobbes considered matter as the only substance, and considered all phenomena, objects, things, processes to be forms of manifestation of this substance. Matter is eternal, but bodies and phenomena are temporary: they arise and disappear. Thought cannot be separated from matter, for only matter itself thinks. An incorporeal substance is impossible in the same way as an incorporeal body. Matter is the subject of all changes.
All material bodies are characterized by extension and form. They can be measured as they have length, width and height. Unlike F. Bacon, Hobbes's matter does not have qualitative characteristics: he studies it from the quantitative side as a mathematician - geometer and mechanic. For him, the world of matter is devoid of such qualities as color, smell, sound, etc. In the interpretation of T. Hobbes, matter seems to be geometrized and appears as something qualitatively homogeneous, colorless, as a certain system of quantitative quantities. He understands movement only as mechanical. Materialistically, Hobbes approaches the consideration of the problems of space and time.
In his philosophical views on the world, T. Hobbes acts more like a deist; although he also makes statements of a directly atheistic nature, such as that God is a product of human imagination. In the essay "Elements of Natural and Political Laws", in the philosophical trilogy "Fundamentals of Philosophy": "On the Body", "On Man", "On the Citizen", as well as in "Leviathan", he constantly emphasizes the role of natural connections and laws. At the same time, T. Hobbes does not completely exclude God from people's lives: God "sees everything and disposes of everything", "this is the first of the reasons." Man's freedom is accompanied by "the need to do no more and no less than what God wills." T. Hobbes emphasizes that God does not interfere in the natural course of events by themselves.
The French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) opposed the dualistic understanding of the world to Bacon's and Gobbe's monistic interpretation of substance.
Descartes admits two principles independent of each other: non-material, or "thinking substance", and material, or "extended substance". These two substances exist, as it were, in parallel. They are studied by metaphysics and physics. The first explores, first of all, the spiritual substance, the principles of cognition and being associated with it. The second represents the philosophy of nature. It gives the doctrine of the origin of the world, the development of life on Earth (according to the laws of nature), considers the structure of the body of animals and humans as complex machines subject to the laws of mechanics. R. Descartes even writes the work "The Animal is a Machine")
He put the idea of the natural development of the solar system, due to the properties of the motion of matter and its heterogeneous particles, as the basis of cosmogony. He ascribes to matter an independent creative force, considering the basis or cause of the motion of particles of matter to be their vortex rotation. Movement was understood by Descartes as mechanical - the movement of bodies in space. Thus, R. Descartes comes into conflict with himself: he recognizes space as the extension of a body, but understands movement as the movement of bodies relative to other bodies, which means recognizing space as a void. Raising the question of the original cause of motion, he refers to God, who created the world and preserves in matter the amount of motion invested during creation. At the same time, the philosopher makes a valuable generalization and formulates the law of conservation of momentum.
The dualistic doctrine of the substance of Descartes was overcome by the Dutch philosopher Benedict (Baruch) Spinoza (1632-1677), who developed the monistic doctrine of the world. His monism appeared in the form of pantheism: in his ontology, he identified God and nature, which acts as a creative nature and a created nature. At the same time, B. Spinoza stated that there is only one material substance, the main attributes of which are extension and thinking. Thus, all nature is living nature, not only because it is God, but also because thinking is inherent in it. Having spiritualized the whole of nature, Spinoza thus acted as a hylozoist philosopher.
He believed that the attributes of a material substance are as eternal as matter itself: they never arise or disappear. The philosopher pays much attention to specific states of substance - modes. He divided them into two groups: modes - eternal, infinite and modes - temporary, finite. Infinite modes are determined by the attributes of the substance - thinking and extension, and finite - by all other phenomena and things.
Spinoza argued that movement is not the result of some divine impulse, because nature is "the cause of itself." Movement is its essence and source. However, the movement is still in Spinoza not an attribute, but a mode (albeit eternal and infinite). According to Spinoza, movement is observed in concrete things, and substance is devoid of movement and change and has nothing to do with time. Spinoza did not understand the essence of self-movement of matter, although he actually wrote about it when he characterized matter as "the cause of itself": the source of motion, although not God, but only mutual external shocks of modes.
At the same time, Spinoza is a consistent determinist. He believes that the emergence, existence, death of phenomena due to objective reasons. He taught about two kinds of causality: internal (immanent) and external (mechanical). The first is inherent in substance, and the second - in modes. From the standpoint of determinism, he considers not only causal relationships, but also the relationships of chance, necessity and freedom. In his Ethics, Spinoza insists on the undivided dominance of necessity, excluding the objectivity of chance when considering substance. But when he turns to the analysis of the world of modes or concrete states of things, his deterministic concept becomes more meaningful and deep. It recognizes chance as an objective phenomenon that exists along with necessity.
Spinoza could not see the chance and necessity in their unity, but his ideas were directed against the teleologism that dominated science (the expediency in nature generated by God).
The German scientist and philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) added the principle of active force, or "self-activity" to Spinoza's concept of substance. In his work "Monadology" he declared material phenomena to be manifestations of indivisible, simple spiritual units - monads. The indivisible monad has no extension and is not in space, since space is infinitely divisible. The monad is the non-material, spiritual center of active force. Monads are eternal and indestructible, they cannot arise or perish naturally. They do not change under external influence. Every single monad is a unity of soul and body. The external expression of the spiritual essence of the monad is the number. Activity, movement - the property of the monad. Nature, according to Leibniz, cannot be explained by the laws of mechanics alone; it is also necessary to introduce the concept of purpose. For each monad is at once both the basis of all its actions and their goal. The soul is the goal of the body, what it strives for. The interaction of the soul and body of the monad is God's "pre-established harmony".
Monads are always characterized by a multiplicity of states, something is constantly changing in them, but something remains the same. A monad is a microcosm, an infinitely small world. Leibniz divided the monads into three categories: the monads of life, the monads of the soul, and the monads of the spirit. Hence, he divided all complex substances into three groups: from monad-lives, inorganic nature arises; from monad-souls, animals; people are formed from monad-spirits.
Leibniz recognized the immortality of the soul and the eternity of substances, such as plant and animal organisms. In nature, in his opinion, there is neither birth nor death, but there is either increase and development, or contraction and decrease. He denies the development of leaps, the discontinuity of gradualness.
The second approach to the analysis of the concept of substance is epistemological.
The beginning was laid by the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704). Locke argued that ideas and concepts have their source in the external world, material things. Material bodies have only purely quantitative features. Qualitative diversity of matter does not exist: material bodies differ from each other only in size, figure, movement and rest. These are the "primary qualities". "Secondary qualities" are smells, sounds, colors, tastes. It seems that they belong to the things themselves, but in fact they are not: these qualities do not exist in things. They, Locke believed, arise in the subject under the influence of "primary qualities."
The division into "primary" and "secondary" qualities is, from the point of view of the level of modern knowledge, naive and unscientific. However, it was picked up by representatives of subjective idealism and brought to its logical conclusion: "primary qualities" were declared along with "secondary qualities" to have no objective content independent of the subject.
So, for example, the English philosopher, Bishop George Berkeley (1685-1753), who openly opposed materialism, atheism and deism, rejects the objective basis of any qualities, in fact equating them to human sensations.
According to J. Berkeley, in reality, there are first of all "souls", God who created them, as well as "ideas" or sensations, as if put by God into human souls. Berkeley reduces everything objective in the external world to the subjective: he identifies all things with "combinations" of sensations. For him, to exist means to be perceived 1 . Berkeley stated that all things are in the mind of God.
English philosopher David Hume (1711 - 1776), just like J. Berkeley, solved the problems of ontology, opposing the materialistic understanding of substance. He rejected the real existence of material and spiritual substance, but believed that there is an "idea" of substance, under which the "association of perceptions" of a person is summed up, which is inherent in ordinary, and not scientific knowledge.
The philosophy of modern times made a major step in the development of the theory of knowledge (epistemology). The main problems were the philosophical scientific method, the methodology of human cognition of the external world, the connection between external and internal experience. The task was to obtain reliable knowledge, which would be the basis of the entire knowledge system. The choice of different ways of solving this problem led to the emergence of two main epistemological trends - empiricism and rationalism.
The founder of the empirical method of cognition was F. Bacon, who attached great importance to the experimental sciences, observation and experiment. He saw the source of knowledge and the criterion of their truth in experience. Considering cognition as a reflection of the external world in human consciousness, he emphasized the decisive role of experience in cognition. However, the philosopher did not deny the role of reason in cognition. The mind must process the data of sensory knowledge and experience, find the fundamental causal relationships of phenomena, and reveal the laws of nature. He emphasized a certain unity of sensual and rational moments in cognition,
F. Bacon gives an interesting and deeply meaningful critique of scholasticism. He declared that the new method first of all required the liberation of the human mind from all kinds of preconceived ideas, false ideas inherited from the past or conditioned by the peculiarities of human nature and authorities. F. Bacon calls these preconceived ideas "idols" or "ghosts". He divides them into four kinds:
1) "idols of the family", i.e. false ideas about things, due to the imperfection of the human senses and the limitations of the mind;
2) "idols of the cave" - distorted ideas about reality associated with the individual upbringing of a person, his education, as well as blind worship of authorities;
3) "idols of the market" - false ideas of people generated by the incorrect use of words, especially common in markets and squares;
4) "idols of the theater" - distorted, misconceptions of people, borrowed by them from various philosophical systems".
With his doctrine of "idols", F. Bacon sought to clear the minds of people from the influence of scholasticism, all kinds of delusions, and thereby create conditions for the successful development and dissemination of knowledge based primarily on the experimental study of nature.
The successor of the philosophy of F. Bacon T. Hobbes emphasized that sensory knowledge is the main form of knowledge. He considered the sensation caused by the action of a material body on a person as the primary act of cognition. He understood thinking as the addition or subtraction of concepts, extending his mathematical method to it completely.
Locke made an attempt to derive from sensory experience the entire content of human consciousness, although he admitted that the mind has a spontaneous power independent of experience.
Rationalism in the theory of knowledge of the 17th century. represented by the teachings of R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz.
R. Descartes in his work "Reasoning about the method" comes to the conclusion that the source of knowledge and the criterion of truth is not in the external world, but in the human mind. Intellectual intuition or pure speculation is the starting point of knowledge. All ideas Descartes divided into two groups: those that came from the senses and innate. It is the latter that have complete certainty. He refers to them the idea of God, mathematical axioms, etc. So, for example, an absolutely certain beginning, method or means that promotes discovery is doubt in everything that exists. He therefore begins by doubting the existence of sensible things, mathematical truths, and even "almighty God." But, doubting everything and denying everything, he comes to the conclusion that it is impossible to doubt that there is a doubting thought. Thus he concludes that the only certain fact is thinking: "I think, therefore I am."
According to Descartes, the clarity and distinctness of our ideas is the criterion of truth. For him, everything that a person perceives clearly and distinctly is true.
B. Spinoza distinguishes three types of knowledge: sensual, giving only vague and untrue ideas, knowledge through reason, giving knowledge about modes, and the highest kind of knowledge - intuition, revealing the truth. From the truths (axioms) established by an intuitive way, all other conclusions and conclusions are deduced deductively using the method of mathematics.
In the philosophy of G. Leibniz in the work "New experiments on human mind"He criticizes Locke's thesis that there is nothing in the mind that was not previously in the senses, with the exception of the mind itself. He divides all truths into necessary truths (truths of reason) and accidental truths (truths of fact). Among the truths of reason, he attributed the concepts of substance, being, cause, action, identity, the principles of logic and the principles of mathematics, the principles of morality.The source of these truths, in his opinion, is only reason.
3. Forms of being. material and ideal
Being can take many forms. The most important are material and ideal being (not material). Material - everything that belongs (objective reality), and is displayed by sensations, existing independently of them. Unlike the term "reality", the term "material" has an ontological connotation.
The opposite of the material is everything related to, that is, related to the subjective part of reality, a reality that exists in (strong) dependence on the subject ("non-material"). One of the main reasons or the only reason is. Thoughts, emotions and more can be attributed to the ideal.
It should be noted that the concepts of material and ideal have a character similar to the concepts of right and left. The ideal of one subject may turn out to be, and almost always is, material for another, and vice versa. It should also be noted that the content of the concepts of the ideal and the material has a development, that is, over time, the ideal of one subject can become material for the same subject. is a generalization of the concept of material.
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