MAGIC AND RELIGION

Originating in ancient times, magic persisted and continued to develop over the millennia. Usually, special people were engaged in magical rites - sorcerers and shamans, among whom, especially in ancient times, women apparently predominated. These sorcerers and shamans, usually nervous and even hysterical people, sincerely believed in their ability to communicate with spirits, convey to them the requests and hopes of the collective, and interpret their will. The very magical rite of communion with the spirits (shamanic ritual) consisted in the fact that through certain ritual actions, in each case special, the shaman, with muttering, singing, dancing, jumping, with the sounds of a tambourine, drum or bell, brought himself to a state of ecstasy (if the rite was performed publicly, the spectators who followed his actions usually reached the state of ecstasy along with him, becoming, as it were, accomplices in the ritual). After that, the shaman often fell into a trance, did not see or hear anything - it was believed that it was at this moment that he made contact with the world of spirits.

In ancient times, magical rites were perhaps more general and less differentiated. Later, their differentiation reached significant proportions. Modern ethnographers, in particular S. A. Tokarev, divide magic according to the methods of influencing contact (contact of a carrier of magical power - a sorcerer-shaman or a magic amulet - with an object), initial (a magical act is directed at an inaccessible object, due to which only the beginning is carried out desired action, the end of which is given to supernatural forces), partial (indirect effect on hair, food, etc.), imitative (influence on the likeness of an object). According to the purposes of influence, magic is divided into harmful, military, industrial, medical, etc.

In general, magic as a series of ritual rites was brought to life by the real needs of society, which, due to certain unpredictable circumstances of being, dictated this kind of way of communication with the world of supernatural forces. However, at the same time, magic played a significant role in fixing pralogical thinking in the minds of people, which played an important role in the process of the formation of religious consciousness. After all, as magical thinking developed, it began to seem more and more obvious and self-evident to a person that the desired result depends not so much on purposeful action, but on incidental circumstances shrouded in the magic of the supernatural. And this led to the fact that many specific phenomena and even individual objects began to be perceived as carriers of magical power.

Arose primitive fetishism, the essence of which boils down to attributing magical powers to individual objects that can influence the course of events and obtain the desired result. An idea arose of a fetish as harmful (the corpse was considered such, which caused the care of burial, the tabooing of the corpse, the rite of purification after the rite of burial, etc.), and useful.

Fetishism manifested itself in the creation of idols - objects made of wood, clay and other materials and various kinds of amulets, talismans. In idols and amulets, they saw objectified carriers of a particle of that supernatural power that was attributed to the world of spirits, ancestors and totems. Sorcerers-shamans often dealt with fetishes of this kind when they acted on the likeness of an object according to the methods of contact and imitative magic.

Fetishism was, as it were, the final stage in the process of formation of the entire complex of early religious ideas of primitive man. In fact, animism, with its spiritualization of nature and ancestors, and totemism, with its cult of the same dead ancestors and totems, meant that in the minds of primitive people there appeared an idea of the existence, along with the world of real things, of an illusory, supernatural world, moreover, within the framework of this second world, In all the incorporeality of its inhabitants, the mind of primitive man saw the same indisputable reality as in the first. In practice, this meant that the responsibility for actions and events that were not due to obvious cause-and-effect relationships and depended on the will of chance, the primitive team placed on otherworldly forces supernatural world. To communicate with this world, to attract its forces to their side, primitive people turned to the help of magic, reliance on which greatly strengthened the sector of pralogical, magical thinking in their minds. And finally, the emergence of fetishes showed that Magic force not only has the ability to move in time and space, but can also be in the objects of the real world.

Thus, in the minds of primitive people, in the process of the formation of a tribal society, a rather clear, harmonious and extensive complex of early religious ideas was developed. Its essence boiled down to the fact that the world of the supernatural with its huge potentialities, free will and magical power is an integral and almost the main part of the real life of a person. It is the forces of this world that regulate the laws of nature and society, and therefore due respect for them is the first duty of the collective, if it wants to exist normally, be provided with food, be under someone's protection. This idea of the world eventually became self-evident, natural, in its mainstream for many tens of thousands of years the entire spiritual life of society flowed - at least until the Neolithic era, and for more backward peoples much later, in some cases up to our days. .

Primitive mythology. The complex of beliefs and ideas of primitive man, like all of his real life with all its difficulties, problems and achievements, were reflected in the oral tradition, which, being fixed in the minds and acquiring fantastic details over time, contributed to the birth of myths, the emergence of primitive mythology.

Mythopoetic creativity has always been closely connected with the spiritual life and religious ideas of people. This is easy to understand: since the basis of the spiritual life of a primitive man was his relationship with the totem, the cult of dead ancestors, the spiritualization of the world or the transfer of magical power to idols and amulets, it is not surprising that the central place in mythology was occupied by zooanthropomorphic ancestors or deified heroes who could any miracles. The names of the so-called cultural heroes in myths were usually associated with the most important inventions or innovations, whether it was the making of fire or the establishment of forms of family and marriage, the manufacture of weapons and tools, or the establishment of rules for initiation. A large place in primitive mythology was also occupied by cosmogonic plots, that is, legends about the origin of the earth and sky, the sun and moon, plants and animals, and finally, man. In myths, the influence of totemism is clearly traced: spirits often have the magical property of reincarnating, changing their appearance; Marriage between a man and an animal, or even a fantastic monster, is considered commonplace.

In primitive mythology, those most important connections between life and death, nature and culture, masculine and feminine, which were previously comprehended by man in the process of his observations, studying the laws of the world, were usually imprinted in figurative form. The analysis of these most important confrontations, as well as the main mythological plots in general, is now one of the important sources for the reconstruction of the most ancient stages of human history, for the knowledge of those important patterns that were characteristic of the life of primitive man. In particular, this analysis allows us to raise the question of the great role played in primitive society cultural influences and borrowing.

BORROWING AND INTERACTION OF CULTURES

Specialists are well aware of how closed the primitive collectives were, how clearly the main social opposition "friends - foes", fixed by the norms of totemism, operated. Naturally, this to a large extent protected this ethnic community from outside influences. Nevertheless, these influences not only existed, but, seeping through the narrowest cracks, had a considerable impact on both the material and spiritual life of people. On the example of mythology, these influences and the cultural borrowings associated with them are especially evident.

Hardly similar mythological plots arose in each small tribe independently and regardless of what its neighbors had. Quite the opposite: despite totem oppositions, communication with neighbors has always opened channels for influence, especially in the sphere of spiritual culture. The plots of myths were spread and easily perceived by those whose level of culture, being, spiritual life and religious ideas at least somewhat corresponded to the plot twists reflected in this or that myth. Of course, this did not mean that the same names, details of the story, turns of the plot roamed from tribe to tribe across the continents. All this was partially changed, overgrown with additions, mixed with already existing local legends, took on a different color, a new ending, etc. In other words, each nation introduced something of its own into the tradition, so that over time it became precisely its myth. Nevertheless, the basis of the plot was preserved, which is quite easily reconstructed today by specialists in the field of structural anthropology, in particular, by the famous French scientist C. Levi-Strauss.

Experts have already proven for a long time that the number of main mythological plots is small - these plots are not only well studied, but even numbered. Without going into details, it is worth noting that this kind of general unity of plots is clearly seen in the example of myths about the universe, including constructions on the theme of the so-called world tree, the world axis, the world mountain, about the emergence of things and beings, including man, in as a result of the dismemberment of the body of the primordial giant, etc. There is a lot in common in cosmological and cosmogonic myths, in ideas about afterlife about the heavens and the celestials. We are not talking about the fact that all stories arose somewhere in one place, and spread from there. What is meant is something else: wherever and whatever arises in the plane of interest to us, sooner or later it becomes the property of all those who were prepared for the perception of the mentioned innovation. This also applies to great discoveries in the material sphere (wheel, agriculture, metal processing, etc.), and innovations in the sphere of ideas, which is now being discussed. The realm of ideas is by no means limited to mythology.

The borrowing of similar ideas and ideas, the mutual influence of cultures and the equalization of cultural potential through the use of the achievements of peoples that have come out ahead have always been the law of human development. If this mechanism of interaction did not work, and each nation would have to invent everything anew, the picture of the world would be completely different. The result of the mechanism of diffusion of cultural achievements can also be considered the fact that, ultimately, the same forms, in approximately the same complex, characterized the religious ideas of sapiens people already at the stage of the Upper Paleolithic.

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According to many psychologists, the need for faith in the supernatural is one of the spiritual, since it is faith that helps people find the meaning of life and cope with life's difficulties. Religion was an integral part social life human society from the time when primitive people only began to live in communities, and it was during the existence of the primitive communal system that the first religions were formed. These religions are called proto-religions , meaning by this concept primitive primitive beliefs, which became the basis for the formation of later beliefs, including -.

The four main proto-religions, according to religious scholars and historians, are animism, totemism, fetishism and magic . It was these forms of beliefs that not only were the most ancient religions, but also served as the basis for the formation of dogmas in almost all religions that recognize the existence of higher powers. Which of the proto-religions appeared first, historians do not know, since all sources of knowledge about ancient beliefs are rock paintings, archeological finds and retellings of myths and legends of ancient peoples, however, based on these sources, we can conclude that animism, totemism, fetishism and magic appeared at about the same time, and in some ancient beliefs there were features of several proto-religions at once.

Signs of animism can be found in almost every belief of the ancient peoples, since the belief in the existence of the spirits of nature, the spirits of ancestors, as well as various ones was inherent in peoples living on all continents. The funeral cult and the cult of ancestors, which were present in almost all ancient religions, are one of the manifestations of animism, since both of these cults testify to the belief in an afterlife and the immaterial world.

The first form of animism that was inherent in primitive society was belief in the spirits of the elements and living and inanimate nature. Since ancient people could not explain the reason for the appearance of such natural processes as thunder, thunderstorm, hurricane, change of seasons, etc., they spiritualized the forces of nature. It was the religion of animism that became the basis for the formation of polytheistic beliefs, because the spirits in which primitive people believed, over time, began to be perceived by them as rational entities that understand the desires of people and patronize them. Therefore, it is natural that in the pantheons of the gods of ancient peoples, for example, the Greeks, Vikings, etc. almost all the gods were associated either with natural or with social phenomena, and the supreme gods were often considered entities that personify the elements.

The term "totemism" comes from the language of the North American Indians, in which the word "ototem" means "its kind." Totemism - a religion based on the belief that there is a mystical connection between a person, clan or tribe with any animal or plant, and it was this animal or plant that was called the totem. The appearance of totemism, according to historians, is associated with the way of life of ancient people. Primitive people were engaged in hunting and gathering, for them plants and animals were a source of food, therefore it is natural that a person began to deify the most important species of flora or fauna for his life. The religion of totemism was most clearly represented in the tribes of North America, Central Africa and Australia, since the life of the ancient people living in these regions was more closely connected with the surrounding nature than the way of life of the peoples of Europe, Asia and West Africa.

Totemism was a belief in a mystical connection with an animal or plant that was a totem, as well as a belief in the protection of the totem. As a result, in the tribes that believe in the existence of a totem connection with their own, rituals and cults were formed aimed at appeasing the totem. There were a large number of such rituals: for example, at the birth of a child, rituals were performed aimed at ensuring that the totem would give protection to a new member of the tribe; then the grown child had to ask for the favor of the totem himself; before important events in the life of the community, in difficult times (before wars with other tribes, during drought, lack of food, etc.), as well as on holidays, people brought gifts to the totem and expressed their requests to him.

The taboo system was an integral part of the religion of totemism. Taboo - this is a series of prohibitions, often associated with a totem, which all members of the tribe had to adhere to. The most common taboos that were present in the beliefs of almost all tribes practicing totemism were:

The prohibition on killing a totem animal;

Prohibition on eating the totem (with the exception of rituals);

The ban on demonstrating a connection with the totem in front of representatives of other tribes;

The ban on killing fellow tribesmen, as this may offend the totem animal, etc.

Fetishism

Fetishism - the belief that some material object is the bearer of a mysterious mystical power , and such an object could be both unusually shaped stones, trees and man-made objects, as well as the sun, moon, etc. Fetishism is rather not a full-fledged religious belief, but one of the components of ancient religious cults. In its purest form, fetishism was present in African tribes, and to our time, some African natives have preserved the custom of worshiping fetishes - both figurines of gods and objects that, according to believers, have magical powers.

Primitive people, as a rule, had more than one fetish, since they considered almost everything unusual or attracted their attention to be magical. Going out on a hunt, an ancient man on his way could find several objects (pebbles, animal bones, unusual plants, etc.), which he could consider mysterious and make his fetishes. With the development of the communal system, each tribe had its own fetish (or several fetishes), which stood in a prominent place in the settlement. People asked the fetish for help, thanked him for good luck and brought him gifts for the holidays, but there was no unquestioning reverence for the fetish - when, according to primitive people, the magic object did not help them, they tortured him to force him to act.

In the majority, and even in the way of life of most of our contemporaries, there is a place for fetishism. Some religious scholars agree that the images of saints, sacred relics, things belonging to the apostles and prophets are a kind of fetish for adherents of religions. Also, the echoes of fetishism include the faith of people with the power of amulets, amulets and other items associated with a particular cult.

Magic and shamanism

Magic - the fourth of the proto-religions, and it often contains elements of totemism, fetishism and animism. In general, magic is a belief in the presence of supernatural forces, as well as in the possibility, through certain rituals and ceremonies, to come into contact with these forces and, with their help, influence a person, a social or natural phenomenon. Magic affected almost all spheres of life of ancient people, and over time, in each tribe (community), peculiar castes of magicians stood out - people who were engaged exclusively in witchcraft and earned their living by performing rituals.

religion shamanism often identified with magic, but this is not entirely true. Undoubtedly, shamanism has much in common with magic, but the basis of this ancient religion- belief in gods and spirits and the ability of the shaman to contact them. The shaman in the religion of shamanism is key figure, since this person lives simultaneously in two worlds - in the material world and the world of spirits. The magic and rituals of the shaman are aimed at connecting with spirits, and it is believed that shamans can ask supernatural powers to influence people and events in the material world. Shamans are considered by the adherents of shamanism to be the chosen ones of spirits, and it can be said that shamans in this religion are a kind of priests who, with the help of magical rituals, communicate with spirits and incarnations of spirits in the material world.

Both magic and religion arise in situations of emotional stress: an everyday crisis, the collapse of the most important plans, death and initiation into the mysteries of one's tribe, unhappy love or unquenched hatred. Both magic and religion indicate ways out of such situations and dead ends in life, when reality does not allow a person to find another way, except for turning to faith, ritual, the sphere of the supernatural. In religion, this sphere is filled with spirits and souls, providence, supernatural patrons of the family and heralds of its mysteries; in magic - a primitive belief in the power of the magic of a magic spell. Both magic and religion are directly based on the mythological tradition, on the atmosphere of miraculous expectation of the revelation of their miraculous power. Both magic and religion are surrounded by a system of rites and taboos that distinguish their actions from those of the uninitiated.

What separates magic from religion? Let us begin with the most definite and conspicuous difference: in the sacred realm, magic appears as a kind of practical art that serves to perform actions, each of which is a means to a certain goal; religion - as a system of such actions, the implementation of which in itself is a certain goal. Let's try to trace this difference at deeper levels. practical art

magic has a specific and applied within the strict boundaries of the performance technique: witchcraft spells, ritual and personal abilities of the performer form a permanent trinity. Religion, in all its manifold aspects and aims, does not have such a simple technique; its unity is not reduced to a system of formal actions, or even to the universality of its ideological content, it rather lies in the function performed and in the value meaning of faith and ritual. The beliefs inherent in magic, in accordance with its practical orientation, are extremely simple. It is always a belief in the power of a person to achieve a desired goal through witchcraft and ritual. At the same time, in religion we observe a significant complexity and diversity of the supernatural world as an object: a pantheon of spirits and demons, the beneficent forces of the totem, spirits - guardians of the clan and tribe, the souls of the forefathers, pictures of the future afterlife- all this and much more creates a second, supernatural reality for primitive man. Religious mythology is also more complex and varied, more imbued with creativity. Usually religious myths are concentrated around various dogmas and develop their content in cosmogonic and heroic narratives, in descriptions of the deeds of gods and demigods. Magical mythology, as a rule, appears in the form of endlessly repeated stories about the extraordinary achievements of primitive people.

Magic, as a special art of achieving specific goals, in one of its forms once enters the cultural arsenal of a person and then is directly transmitted from generation to generation. From the very beginning, it is an art that few specialists master, and the first profession in the history of mankind is the profession of a sorcerer and sorcerer. Religion, in its most primitive forms, appears as a common cause of primitive people, each of whom takes an active and equal part in it. Each member of the tribe goes through a rite of passage (initiation) and subsequently initiates others himself. Each member of the tribe mourns and weeps when his relative dies, participates in the burial and honors the memory of the deceased, and when his hour comes, he will be mourned and remembered in the same way. Each person has his own spirit, and after death, each person becomes a spirit. The only specialization that exists within religion, the so-called primitive spiritistic mediumship, is not a profession, but an expression of personal talent. Another difference between magic and religion is the play of black and white in sorcery, while religion in its primitive stages is not much interested in the opposition between good and evil, beneficent and malefic forces. Here again, the practical nature of magic, aimed at immediate and measurable results, is important, while primitive religion is turned to fatal, inevitable events and supernatural forces and beings (although mainly in a moral aspect), and therefore does not deal with problems associated with human impact on the world. The aphorism that fear first created the gods in the universe is completely wrong in the light of anthropology.

In order to understand the differences between religion and magic, and to clearly represent the relationship in the triangular constellation of magic, religion and science, it is necessary at least briefly to indicate the cultural function of each of them. The function of primitive knowledge and its value has already been discussed above, and it is quite simple. Knowledge of the surrounding world gives a person the opportunity to use natural forces; primitive science gives people a huge advantage over other living beings, it advances them much further than all other creatures along the path of evolution. In order to understand the function of religion and its value in the mind of primitive man, it is necessary to carefully study the many native

beliefs and cults. We have already shown before that religious faith gives stability, shapes and strengthens all value-significant mental attitudes, such as respect for tradition, a harmonious worldview, personal valor and confidence in the fight against worldly adversity, courage in the face of death, etc. This faith, maintained and formalized in cult and ceremonies, has tremendous vital significance and reveals to primitive man the truth in the broadest, practically important sense of the word. What is the cultural function of magic? As we have already said, all the instinctive and emotional faculties of man, all his practical actions can lead to such impasses when they misfire all his knowledge, reveal their limited power of the mind, cunning and observation do not help. The forces on which a person relies in Everyday life, leave it at a critical moment. Human nature responds with a spontaneous explosion, releasing rudimentary forms of behavior and a dormant belief in their effectiveness. Magic builds on this belief, transforming it into a standardized ritual that takes on a continuous traditional form. Thus, magic provides a person with a set of ready-made ritual acts and standard beliefs, formalized by a certain practical and mental technique. Thus, as it were, a bridge is erected over the abysses that arise before a person on the way to his most important goals, a dangerous crisis is overcome. This allows a person not to lose his presence of mind when solving the most difficult life tasks; maintain self-control and integrity of the personality when an attack of anger, a paroxysm of hatred, a hopelessness of despair and fear approaches. The function of magic is to ritualize human optimism, to maintain faith in the victory of hope over despair. In magic, a person finds confirmation that self-confidence, perseverance in trials, optimism prevail over hesitation, doubt and pessimism.

Casting a glance from the heights of the present, advanced civilization, which has gone far from primitive people, it is easy to see the rudeness and inconsistency of magic. But we must not forget that without her help primitive man would not have been able to cope with the most difficult problems of his life and could not have advanced to higher stages of cultural development. Hence the universal prevalence of magic in primitive societies and the exclusivity of its power is clear. This explains the constant presence of magic in any significant activity of primitive people.

Magic must be understood by us in its inextricable connection with the majestic folly of hope, which has always been the best school of human character.

Myth is component common system of beliefs of the natives. Relations between people and spirits are determined by closely related mythical narratives, religious beliefs and feelings. In this system, the myth is, as it were, the basis of a continuous perspective in which the daily worries, sorrows and anxieties of people acquire the meaning of movement towards a certain common goal. Passing his way, a person is guided by a common faith, personal experience and memory of past generations, keeping traces of those times when the events took place that became the impetus for the emergence of the myth.

An analysis of the facts and the content of myths, including those retold here, allow us to conclude that primitive people had a comprehensive and consistent system of beliefs. It would be in vain to look for this system only in the outer layers of native folklore accessible to direct observation. This system corresponds to a certain cultural reality, in which all particular forms of native beliefs, experiences and premonitions related to the death and life of spirits

after the death of people, are intertwined into some kind of grandiose organic integrity. Mythic narratives intertwine with each other, their ideas intersect, and the natives constantly find parallels and internal connections between them. Myth, faith and experience associated with the world of spirits and supernatural beings are the constituent elements of a single whole. What connects these elements is an enduring desire to have communion with the lower world, the abode of the spirits. Mythic tales only lend key points native beliefs explicit form. Their plots are sometimes quite complex, they always tell about something unpleasant, about some kind of loss or loss: about how people have lost the ability to regain their youth, how witchcraft causes illness or death, how spirits left the world of people and how everything is at least a partial relationship with them.

It is striking that the myths of this cycle are more dramatic, the connection between them is more consistent, although more complex than the myths about the beginnings of being. Without dwelling on this point, I will only say that here, perhaps, the matter is in a deeper metaphysical sense and more strong feeling that are associated with the problems of human destiny, compared with the problems of the social plan.

Be that as it may, we see that myth, as part of the spirituality of the natives, cannot be explained solely by cognitive factors, no matter how great their significance may be. The most important role in the myth is played by its emotional side and practical sense. What the myth narrates deeply disturbs the native. Thus, the myth that tells about the origin of the milamala holiday determines the nature of the ceremonies and taboos associated with the periodic return of the spirits. This narration itself is completely understandable to the native and does not require any "explanations", therefore the myth does not even to a small extent pretend to such a role. Its function is different: it is designed to alleviate the emotional tension experienced by the human soul, anticipating its inevitable and inexorable fate. First, the myth gives this foreboding a very clear and tangible form. Secondly, he reduces the mysterious and chilling idea to the level of familiar everyday reality. It turns out that the longed-for ability to restore youth, saving from decrepitude and aging, was lost by people just because of a trifling incident that could have been prevented even by a child or a woman. Death forever separating loved ones and loving people, is something that can come from a small quarrel or carelessness with hot stew. A dangerous disease occurs due to a chance meeting of a man, a dog and a crab. Mistakes, misdeeds and accidents acquire great significance, and the role of fate, fate, inevitability is reduced to the scale of a human mistake.

In order to understand this, it should be recalled once again that the feelings experienced by a native in relation to death, either his own, or the death of his loved ones and loved ones, are by no means completely determined by his beliefs and myths. A strong fear of death, a keen desire to avoid it, a deep grief from the loss of loved ones and relatives - all this is deeply contrary to the optimism of faith in the easy achievement of the afterlife, which pervades native customs, ideas and rituals. When a person is threatened with death or when death enters his house, the most thoughtless faith cracks. In long conversations with some seriously ill natives, especially with my consumptive friend Bagido "u, I always felt the same, perhaps implicitly or primitively expressed, but undoubtedly melancholic sadness about the passing life and its joys, the same horror before the inevitable the end, the same hope that this end might be postponed, even if only for a short time.But I also felt that the souls of these people were warmed by the reliable faith that comes from their faith.The living narrative of the myth blocked the abyss that was ready to open before them.

myths of magic

Now I will allow myself to dwell on another type of mythic narratives: those myths that are associated with magic. Magic, no matter how you take it, is the most important and most mysterious aspect of the practical attitude of primitive people to reality. The most powerful and controversial interests of anthropologists are connected with the problems of magic. In northwestern Melanesia, the role of magic is so great that even the most superficial observer cannot fail to notice it. However, its manifestations are not quite clear at first glance. Although literally the entire practical life of the natives is imbued with magic, from the outside it may seem that in a number of very important areas of activity it does not exist.

For example, no native will dig up a bed of bagat or taro without uttering magical spells, but at the same time, the cultivation of coconuts, bananas, mangoes or breadfruit does without any magical rites. Fishing, which is subordinate to agriculture, is associated with magic only in some of its forms. This is mainly fishing for sharks, kalala fish and to "ulam. But equally important, although easier and more accessible, methods of fishing with plant poisons are not at all accompanied by magical rituals. When building a canoe, in a matter associated with significant technical difficulties, risky and highly organized work, the magical ritual is very complex, inextricably linked with this process and considered absolutely necessary.But the construction of huts, technically no less difficult than the construction of a canoe, but not so dependent on chance, not subject to such risks and dangers, is not requiring such a significant cooperation of labor, is not accompanied by any magical rites.Wood carving, which has an industrial meaning, which is taught from childhood and which is employed in some villages by almost all the inhabitants, is not accompanied by magic, but artistic sculpture made of ebony or iron wood, which is practiced only by people with extraordinary technical and artistic abilities, has the corresponding magical rites, which are considered the main source of skill or inspiration. Trade, kula, a ceremonial form of exchange of goods, has its own magical ritual; however, other, smaller forms of barter, which are purely commercial in nature, do not involve any magical rites. War and love, illness, wind, weather, fate - all this, according to the natives, is completely dependent on magical powers.

Already from this cursory review, an important generalization emerges for us, which will serve as a starting point. Magic takes place where a person encounters uncertainty and chance, and also where there is an extreme emotional tension between the hope to achieve the goal and the fear that this hope may not come true. Where the goals of activity are defined, achievable and well controlled by rational methods and technology, we do not find magic. But it is present where the elements of risk and danger are obvious. There is no magic when complete confidence in the safety of the event makes any prediction of the course of events superfluous. This is where the psychological factor comes into play. But magic also performs another, no less important, social function. I have already written about the fact that magic acts as an effective factor in organizing labor and giving it a systemic character. It also acts as a force that allows the implementation of practical plans. Therefore, the cultural integrative function of magic is to eliminate those obstacles and inconsistencies that inevitably arise in those areas of practice that have great social significance, where a person is not able to fully

control the course of events. Magic maintains in a person the confidence in the success of his actions, without which he would not have been able to achieve his goals; in magic a man draws spiritual and practical resources when he cannot rely on the ordinary means at his disposal. Magic instills in him faith, without which he could not solve vital tasks, strengthens his spirit and allows him to gather strength in those circumstances when he is threatened with despair and fear, when he is seized with horror or hatred, crushed by love failure or impotent rage.

Magic has something in common with science in the sense that it is always directed towards a certain goal, generated by the biological and spiritual nature of man. The art of magic is always subordinated to practical ends; like any other art or craft, it has some conceptual basis and principles, the system of which determines the way to achieve goals. Therefore, magic and science have a number of similarities, and, following Sir James Frazer, we might with some justification call magic "pseudo-science."

Let us take a closer look at what constitutes the art of magic. Whatever the specific form of magic, it always contains three essential elements. In a magical act, there are spells spoken or chanted, a ritual or ceremony, and the person who officially has the right to perform the ceremony and cast spells. Thus, when analyzing magic, one must distinguish between the formula of the spell, the rite, and the personality of the magician himself. I note right away that in the area of Melanesia where I conducted my research, the most important element magic is a spell. To a native, to wield magic is to know a spell; in any witchcraft rite, the entire ritual is built around the repeated repetition of the spell. As for the ritual itself and the personality of the magician, these elements are conditional and are important only as an appropriate form for casting spells. This is important from the point of view of the topic we are discussing, since the magic spell reveals its connection with traditional teachings and, to an even greater extent, with mythology.

Exploring various forms of magic, we almost always find some narratives that describe and explain the origins of the existence of certain magical rites and spells. They tell how, when and where this formula came to belong to a particular person or community, how it was transmitted or inherited. But one should not see in such narratives a "history of magic." Magic has no "beginning", it is not created or invented. Magic has simply been from the very beginning, it has always existed as the most essential condition for all those events, things and processes that constitute the sphere of human vital interests and are not subject to his rational efforts. The spell, the rite and the purpose for which they are performed coexist in one and the same time of human existence.

Thus, the essence of magic lies in its traditional integrity. Without the slightest distortion and change, it is passed down from generation to generation, from primitive people to modern performers of rituals - and only in this way does it retain its effectiveness. Therefore, magic needs a kind of pedigree, so to speak, a passport for time travel. How a myth gives a magical rite value and significance, coupled with a belief in its effectiveness, is best shown by a concrete example.

As we know, the Melanesians attach great importance love and sex. Like other peoples inhabiting the islands of the South Seas, they allow great freedom and ease of conduct in sexual relations, especially before marriage. However, adultery is a punishable offense and ties within the same totemic clan are strictly prohibited. The biggest crime in

in the eyes of the natives is any form of incest. The mere thought of an illegal relationship between brother and sister horrifies and disgusts them. Brother and sister, united by the closest ties of kinship in this matriarchal society, cannot even freely communicate with each other, should never joke or smile at each other. Any allusion to one of them in the presence of the other is considered very bad manners. Outside the clan, however, freedom of sexual relations is quite significant, and love takes on many tempting and attractive forms.

The attractiveness of sex and the strength of love attraction, the natives believe, originate in love magic. The latter is based on a drama that once happened in the distant past. The tragic myth of incest between brother and sister tells of her. Here is its summary.

In one village, a brother and sister lived in their mother's hut. One day, a young girl accidentally inhaled the smell of a powerful love potion prepared by her brother to attract the affection of another woman. Mad with passion, she drew her own brother to a deserted seashore and seduced him there. Seized with remorse, tormented by pangs of conscience, the lovers stopped drinking and eating and died side by side in the same cave. Where their bodies lay, fragrant grass sprouted, the juice of which is now mixed with other infusions and used in the rites of love magic.

It can be said without exaggeration that magical myths, even more than other types of native mythology, serve as a social claim of people. On their basis, a ritual is created, faith in the miraculous power of magic is strengthened, and traditional patterns of social behavior are fixed.

The revelation of this cult-creating function of magical myth fully confirms the brilliant theory of the origin of power and monarchy developed by Sir James Frazer in the first chapters of his Golden Bough. According to Sir James, the origins of social power are to be found chiefly in magic. Having shown how the effectiveness of magic depends on local traditions, social class, and direct inheritance, we can now trace another cause and effect relationship between tradition, magic, and power.

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Introduction

Magic… This word itself is a veil behind which a mysterious and mysterious world is hidden!

Even for those who are alien to the attraction to the occult, who do not know the burning interest that is fueled by fashion today, even for those who are characterized by the clarity of scientific thinking, the meaning of this word has a special attraction.

To some extent, this is explained by the hope to find in magic some quintessence of the most important aspirations of primitive people and their wisdom. The value of such knowledge cannot be disputed, whatever its content.

But, in addition, it is impossible not to admit that the word "magic" seems to awaken in us dormant spiritual secrets, the hope for a miracle hidden in the recesses of the soul, faith in the undiscovered possibilities of man.

The subduing power of the words "magic", "charm", "witchcraft", "magic" in poetry appears with all evidence and remains beyond the control of time.

As far as religion is concerned, it is certainly faith. Religion is always nourished by a religious feeling, which has a very ancient origin.

But just as in magic, in religion there is an element of unknowability, something that has unknowable power.

magic religion mythology

1.1 Concept of the term

There are various definitions of magic.

But all of them invariably note one of its features: it is always based on belief in supernatural powers And in the ability of a person with the help of these forces control the world.

Magic - this is a rite associated with belief in the ability of a person to supernaturally influence people, animals, natural phenomena, as well as imaginary spirits and gods.

A magical action, as a rule, consists of the following main elements:

a material object, that is, a tool;

verbal spell - a request or demand with which supernatural forces are addressed;

certain actions and movements without words.

Magic seems so dark and incomprehensible, even to those who study it seriously, only because the student from the very beginning goes into complex details, in which he becomes confused.

To understand what magic is, one must first of all penetrate with the idea that all striking senses, objects of the external world are only visible reflections of invisible ideas and laws that can be deduced by the thinking mind from these sensory perceptions.

What should interest a person in the personality of another? Not his clothes, but his character and manner of his actions.

Clothes, and especially the manner of wearing them, indicate approximately the upbringing of a person; but this is only a faint reflection of his inner world.

Consequently, all physical phenomena are only reflections, "clothes" of higher entities, ideas.

A stone statue is the form in which the sculptor embodied his idea.

A chair is a material transfer of a carpenter's thought. And so it is in all nature: a tree, an insect, a flower - there are material images of abstractions in the full sense of the word.

These abstractions are not seen by the scientist, who is concerned only with the appearance of things, and who has enough to do with them.

1.2 Occultism and magic

The occult sciences represent an integral sphere of world culture.

The very word occultism - latin and means " secret, hidden" and has in mind hidden, inaccessible to man forces.

Why is a person so attracted to them? I would like to answer these questions.

First reason is that humans are naturally curious. Everything that is surrounded by some kind of mystery attracts him. A person feels that there is still another, inaccessible world, and he has always attracted a person. In addition, a person has a kind of memory. This memory, passed down from generation to generation, constantly reminds a person of his once happy life in paradise, in close communion with God. The Fall corrupted man and now he is drawn to the other world, no matter what world.

The second reason Man's attraction to the occult takes us one step further. The fact is that the human soul is always looking for something. It comes from God and only in Him does it find its final rest. And if the soul does not have this contact with God, if it does not find shelter and food? Then she starts looking for something on the side. And what is there, in this other world? A person is always interested in everything secret, secret, and, having found this secret, it seems to him that he has finally found something for his soul. But this is just a cheap substitute.

Third reason people's attraction to the occult lies in the desire to know the future in advance. After all, the strengthening of the influence of the occult is noticed precisely when uncertainty and fear reign in society.

Today society feels the nearness of the end of the world. The madness of the arms race cannot continue indefinitely. And although recently attempts have been made to disarm and bring peoples closer together, the military-industrial complex has become such an independent force that it will not allow itself to be destroyed. And if in the future we may be able to avoid bloodshed between individual peoples, then it seems to me impossible to avoid the most severe struggle between arms manufacturers and peace-loving forces.

Stocks of raw materials are not eternal, the nature around us is dying. The Earth's climate is changing, global warming has already reached almost 2 degrees, causing disastrous droughts in some places, and floods in others. As a result of the melting of the glaciers of Greenland and Antarctica, the beginning of the rise in the level of the world ocean is approaching. The protective ozone layer of the Earth is becoming thinner, and in some places it is almost gone, ozone holes have appeared.

What will become of humanity, of us?

Occultism seems to offer man a way out. Psychics offer harmonization of all internal processes of a person, a return to cosmic harmony, which a person allegedly lost.

Modern occultism instills confidence in people both in life and even beyond the threshold of death. Death is a connection with the Universe, or with a great spirit, of which we are all allegedly a part. Already now it is possible to look for ways to this state through yoga and meditation.

Fourth reason attraction to the occult lies in the loneliness of man.

Fifth cause is the weakening of the testimony of the Church of Christ. She is either trying to win a position in society and is engaged in opportunism, or she is so busy with herself, building new houses of worship or business that she does not have enough time to pay attention to the needs of those around her.

For at least five millennia, occultism has developed according to its own laws, being in the same context with other areas of human intellectual reflection.

It is pleasant to recall that scientific chemistry could not have arisen without alchemy, that astronomy would not have been possible without astrology, that psychology was born in the shell of occultism.

I would like to emphasize that occultism does not need justifications, and its right to exist is not at all determined by the fact that it once provided assistance to a different, rationalistic knowledge.

The occult exists and is interesting in itself. It is valuable in itself because it is one of the "eternal companions of mankind."

The difference between magic and general occultism is that magic is a practical science, while general occultism expounds theory.

To wish to make magical experiments without knowledge of the occult is like driving a locomotive without knowing the mechanics.

Just as the dream of a child who was given a wooden saber to become a general is unrealizable, so is the dream of a person familiar with magic "by hearsay". What would the soldiers say if a child with a wooden saber began to command them?

To stop the flow of water or the movement of the sun with the help of a spell memorized by heart, you can only brag to your friends.

Before you can manage the power contained in the grain, you must learn to manage yourself. Before you get a professorship, you have to go through school and a higher educational institution. Those who find it difficult can become, for example, a bartender, for this it will take only a few months of training.

Practical magic requires knowledge of the relevant theories, like all applied sciences.

You can study mechanics at a higher educational institution and become an engineer, or - in a locksmith's shop and become a locksmith. It's the same with magic.

There are people in the villages who produce interesting phenomena and cure certain diseases. Art that they adopted from others. Usually they are called "sorcerers" and it is absolutely in vain to be afraid of them.

Along with these "locksmiths" of magic there are people who have studied the theory of the magical phenomena they produce. And here they are, just will be the "engineers" of magic.

Magical actions could be both individual and collective. In all the variety of magical rituals, the outstanding Soviet scientist Sergei Alexandrovich Tokarev singled out types of magic , which differ in the technique of transferring magical power and protection from it:

· Contact magic associated with direct contact with the source or carrier of magical power ( amulet, talisman, man) with the object to which the magical action is directed. The nature of the contact could be different: wearing an amulet, taking a drug inside, touching a hand, and the like.

· Initial magic. The magical act is directed here also at the object. But due to its inaccessibility, only the beginning of the action is really produced, and magical power must end it.

· Partial magic. Magic ritual associated with the impact not on the object, but on its substitute, which is part of the object ( hair, nails, saliva, animal organ) or an object that was in contact with it ( clothing, footprint, personal items).

· imitative magic. The magical action is directed to such a substitute for the object, which is the likeness or image of the object.

· Apatropeic (repulsive) magic. If the types of magic listed above transfer magical power to an object, then this type of magical rites aims to prevent close to a person or object of magical power ( amulets, gestures, sounds, fire, smoke, magic lines). It was also believed that in order to avoid harmful magical influences you can hide from them avoid magically dangerous places, cover various parts of the body).

· Cathartic magic includes rites of purification negative impact magic power ( ablution, fumigation, fasting, drugs).

A separate type is word magic - conspiracies and spells. Initially, the word, apparently, was merged with magical action. But later it turns into an independent magical force.

The magical rite was associated not only with certain actions and words, but included various symbolic objects.

The shaman's costume reflected the original structure of the universe, the chest decoration made of shiny stones or metal served as a symbol of a magic mirror designed to see the hidden, the mask acted as a symbol of the spirit with which one must make contact, the tattoo was a system of magical signs.

During the magical rite, the shaman, and often the rest of its participants, entered into a state of trance or ecstasy. This was facilitated by the use of a drum or tambourine, as well as the rhythmic repeated pronunciation or chanting of certain words. As a result, people really had a feeling of moving to a different plane of being ( voices were heard, visions appeared).

What was the effectiveness of the magical rite?

Serving the practical needs of primitive man, he would inevitably have to be rejected if he does not bring real results. The thing is that magical rites were performed only in a situation of fundamental unpredictability and mortal threat. Where chance and uncertainty prevailed, where there was no guaranteed luck, where there was a great opportunity to make a mistake, there man used magical rites.

Thus, the scope of magic is an area of high risk. Magic was a "plan of activity" that included all the reserves of the spirit, body and social relations.

The psychological impact of a magical rite is associated with suggestion and self-hypnosis. Reconstruction of a holistic image of reality, its ordering and symbolic control over the world saved the tribe from a sense of uncertainty and impotence. Thus, magic was the first ideal of man's active relation to the world.

The magical rite modeled creative activity, created new forms of communication, and exercised human control over nature in an idealized form.

2. Religion

The main question for every person has always been and remains the question of the meaning of life. Not everyone can find the final answer for themselves, not everyone is able to substantiate it sufficiently. But in every normal person there is an ineradicable need to find this meaning and its reasonable justification.

Modern man is surrounded by a large number of diverse faiths and ideologies, but all of them can be united around two main worldviews: religions And atheism.

The third, often called agnosticism, in essence, cannot claim a worldview status, since it denies a person the possibility of knowing such worldview realities as the existence of God, the soul, the immortality of a person, the nature of good and evil, truth, and more.

Religion and atheism should be considered as theories of the existence (or non-existence) of God, in which the relevant scientific and other criteria are applied: the presence of confirming factors and the possibility of experimental verification of the main provisions of the theory.

A system that does not meet these criteria can only be considered as a hypothesis.

In this scientific context, religion and atheism appear as follows:

Religion offers a huge number of such facts that testify to the existence of the world of the supernatural, non-material, existence higher mind(God), souls and the like.

At the same time, religion also offers a specific practical way of knowing these spiritual realities, that is, it offers a way to verify the truth of its statements. Let's take a look at how and which religions present their faith to us.

2.1 Concept of the term

"Religion " is a Western European term.

In Latin, by the early Middle Ages, the word " religion" began to point to God's fear, monastic lifestyle".

The formation of this new meaning in Latin is usually derived from the Latin verb " religion" - " bind" .

The largest representative of the Russian religious philosophical thought Pavel Alexandrovich Florensky wrote: " Religion is a system of actions and experiences that provide salvation for the soul." .

Talcott Parsons , one of the leading American sociologists - theorists of the 20th century, argued: " Religion is a system of beliefs" non-empirical and valuable" , in contrast to science," empirical and non-valuable" … "

Thus, the term "religion" has many definitions.

But one thing is certain: religion is the belief in the existence of higher powers.

2.2 Magic and religion. Differences

Both magic and religion indicate ways out of such situations and dead ends in life, when reality does not allow a person to find another way, except for turning to faith, ritual, the sphere of the supernatural.

In religion, this sphere is filled with spirits and souls, providence, supernatural patrons of the family and messengers of its secrets. In magic, it is the primitive belief in the power of the magic of a magic spell.

Both magic and religion directly rely on the mythological tradition, on the atmosphere of miraculous expectation of the revelation of their miraculous power.

Both magic and religion are surrounded by a system of rites and taboos that distinguish their actions from those of the uninitiated.

What separates magic from religion?

Let's start with the most specific and conspicuous difference:

In the sacred sphere, magic acts as a kind of practical art that serves to perform actions, each of which is a means to achieve a specific goal.

Religion - as a system of such actions, the implementation of which in itself is a certain goal.

Religious mythology is more complex and varied, more imbued with creativity.

Usually religious myths are centered around various dogmas and develop their content in heroic narratives, in descriptions of the deeds of gods and demigods.

Magical mythology, as a rule, appears in the form of endlessly repeated stories about the extraordinary achievements of primitive people.

Religion, in its most primitive forms, appears as a common cause of primitive people, each of whom takes an active and equal part in it.

Each member of the tribe goes through a rite of passage ( initiation) and subsequently initiates others himself.

Each member of the tribe mourns and weeps when his relative dies, participates in the burial and honors the memory of the deceased, and when his hour comes, he will be mourned and remembered in the same way.

Each person has his own spirit, and after death, each person becomes a spirit. The only specialization that exists within religion is that primitive spiritual mediumship is not a profession, but an expression of personal talent.

Another difference between magic and religion is the play of black and white in sorcery, while religion in its primitive stages is not much interested in the opposition between good and evil, beneficent and malefic forces.

What is important here is the practical nature of magic, aimed at immediate and measurable results, while primitive religion is turned to fatal, inevitable events and supernatural forces and beings, and therefore does not deal with problems related to human impact on the world around.

"There are no peoples, no matter how primitive they are, without religion and magic," says an outstanding British anthropologist and theorist Bronislav Malinovsky.

Myth, religion, magic, according to Malinovsky, constitute a necessary organic part of social life.

Separating religion and magic from the practical life of primitive society, Malinovsky does it excessively mechanically, believing that people resort to the assistance of the supernatural only where real practical knowledge and skills are powerless. This is an obvious simplification of the real situation, contrary to the facts.

The same applies to the distinction between magic and religion. In general, their functions, according to Malinovsky himself, are very close: if magic grew out of the need to prevent potentially dangerous, threatening phenomena and events, religion arose from the desire to reduce the feeling of anxiety that takes possession of people in critical, crisis periods of life associated with the transition from one states into another, such as birth, puberty, marriage, and death.

Primitive religion sanctifies people, it affirms socially positive values.

At the heart of religion are, according to Malinovsky, not reflections and speculations, not illusions and delusions, but the real tragedies of human life.

3. Magic and religion from Fraser's point of view

According to Frazer, the difference between magic and religion lies in the very content of the representations. From his point of view, "magic is based on the erroneous application of the psychological law of the association of ideas by similarity and contiguity: the connection of similar or adjacent ideas was taken by primitive man for the real connection of the objects themselves."

Frazer believed that magic is based on the same principle on which science is based: the belief in the constancy and uniformity of the action of the forces of nature.

Religion, from Frazer's point of view, differs from both magic and science in that it allows the arbitrary intervention of supernatural forces in the course of events. The essence of religion lies precisely in the desire to favor these forces, which he considers to be superior to himself. And magic is completely opposite to religion: magic is based on a person’s belief in his ability to directly influence an object and achieve the desired goal, the performance of a magical rite must inevitably lead to a certain result, while a prayer addressed to God or some kind of totem can be heard or not heard by the deity.

M.A. Kastren thought the same way. He saw in magic a direct manifestation of man's dominance over nature, and he also believed that it was completely opposite to faith in a deity.

4. Similarities between magic and religion

Powers beyond the ordinary include both magic and religion. In this regard, the question arises about the relationship between these two phenomena, each of which is characterized by communication with the sacred. Without going into details, we only note that magic means the manipulation of an impersonal force with the help of special techniques, sorcery in the name of achieving specific goals that correspond to the interests of the individual and are not related to moral assessments. Its effectiveness depends on the accuracy of the performance of ritual magical actions, adherence to tradition. Magic is associated with stereotyping human activity, while the religious rationalization of human activity is carried out in a different context - when existence is no longer fully ensured by tradition, and the sacred from an impersonal force spilled in the world is transformed into a divine person, towering over the profane world.

At the same time, there is a structural similarity between magic and religion - Weber draws attention to this when he introduces the concept of "magic symbolism". At a certain stage, a real victim is replaced, for example, in a funeral ceremony, by a symbolic victim, a drawing of a sacrificial animal, some parts of its body, etc. To a greater or lesser extent, the magical meaning of the ritual action is preserved in religion. To understand religion, it is important, therefore, to identify the differences between religious symbols, not only from magical ones, but in general from non-religious ones.

If the deity, i.e. omnipotent "other being" is in another world, then people get access to this power in those actions that constitute the practice religious life(cult activity) and whose purpose is to serve as a connecting bridge between "this world" and the "other world", - a bridge along which the mighty power of a deity can be directed to help powerless people. IN material sense this bridge is represented by "holy places" that are both in "this world" and beyond (for example, the church is considered the "house of God"), mediators - "holy people" (clergymen, hermits, shamans, inspired prophets), endowed with the ability to establish a connection with the forces of another world, despite the fact that they themselves still live in this world.

This "connecting bridge" is represented not only by cult activity, but also in mythology and ideas about incarnations, reincarnations of deities who manage to be both deities and human beings. The mediator - be it a real human being (for example, a shaman) or a mythological god-man - is endowed with "boundary" features: he is both mortal and immortal. "The power of the Holy Spirit" - a magical power in the general sense of "sacred action", but it is also a sexual power - is able to impregnate women.

An important characteristic of every religion is its attitude towards magic and religion as "ideal types", i.e. the degree of presence of magical elements in it and the degree of its rationalization: in some religions there is more than one, in others - the other. Depending on this, the type of attitude towards the world inherent in this religion is formed.

Conclusion

Primitiveness seems to us today the distant past of mankind. And the remains of archaic tribes are perceived as museum exotics.

However, traces of primitiveness continued to exist throughout the history of mankind, organically woven into the culture of subsequent eras.

At all times, people continued to believe in signs, the evil eye, the number 13, prophetic dreams, fortune-telling on cards and other superstitions, which are an echo of primitive culture.

Developed religions have retained a magical attitude to the world in their cults ( faith in the miraculous power of relics, healing with holy water, the sacrament of unction and communion in Christianity).

It is safe to say that the basic structures of the primitive worldview live in the depths of the psyche of each modern man and under certain circumstances break out.

Crisis state of society; phenomena that science cannot explain and deadly diseases that it cannot cure; unpredictable, dangerous, but significant situations for a person - this is the foundation on which old myths and superstitions are reborn and new ones grow, a new strength and craving for religion is reborn.

Bibliography

1. Religions of the world. Under the editorship of Corresponding Member. RAS Ya.N. Shchapova Moscow: "Enlightenment", 1994.

2. Sociology. Osipov G.V., Kovalenko Yu.P., Shchipanov N.I., Yanovsky R.G. Moscow: from "Thought", 1990.

3. Socio-political and scientific journal "Russia" number 1-2, 1994.

4. Socio-political and scientific journal "Russia" number 3, 1994.

Internet resources

1. http:// h- sciences. en/ culture/68-6- pervobytnaya- culture. html

2. http:// scepsis. net/ library/ id_305. html

3. http:// www. theology. en/ taintva3. htm

4. http:// natives. people. en/ origins_ of_ religion16. htm

5. http:// www. bibliofond. en/ view. aspx? id=78217

6. http:// www. verigi. en/? book=152& chapter=1

7. http:// enc- dic. com/ islam/ mekka-414

8. http:// www. verigi. en/? book=1& chapter=20

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